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CHINA

A HISTORY OF THE LAWS, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS
OF THE PEOPLE

VOL. I.

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CHINA

A HISTORY OF THE LA^YS, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS
OF THE TEOPLE

JOHN HENRY GRAY M.A. LL.D.

AKCUDEACON OF HONGKONG.
EDITED BY

WILLIAM GOW GREGOR

IN TWO VOLUMES

VOL. I ^ 3

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY ILLUSTRATIONS

|?onboit

M ACM ILL AN AND CO.

1878

\_T/ii' liiyht of Triinslation and Reprodiidion is rieserced]

LONDON :

R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,

BREAD STREET HILL.

TO
THE EIGHT HONOURABLE

EARL GRANVILLE, K.G.

THESE VOLUMES

WRITTEN DURING A LONG RESIDENCE IN CHINA

ARE MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED

BY

THE AUTHOR

The Author of these volumes returned to China in
the beginning of last year, and, at his request, I undertook
what editorial work seemed necessary in connection with
the publication.

W. G. G.

Streatham, S.W.

25 January, 1878.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEK I.

PAtii:
INTRODUCTORY 1

CHAPTER II.

GOVERNMENT 1!)

CHAPTER III.

PRISONS AND PUNISHMENTS 4R

CHAPTER IV.

RELIGION. — CONFUCIANISM (ifi

CHAPTER V.

POPULAR GOBS AND GODDESSES 14.3

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

lAGE

EDUCATION AND THE PRESS 166

CHAPTER VII.

MARRIAGE 183

CHAPTER VIII.

DIVORCE 219

CHAPTER IX.

PARENTS AND CUII.DREN .... 229

CHAPTER X.

SERVANTS AND SLAVES 240

CHAPTER XI.

FESTIVALS 249

CHAPTER XII.

FUNERALS

•27S

CHAPTER XIII.

SUICIDES 329

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIV.

PAGE

TlXr.KS OF HONOUR AND VISITS OF CEREMONY 342

CHAPTER XV.

SUMl'TUARY LAWS 3G2

CHAPTER XVI.

AMUSEMENTS AND SPORTS 377

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

To face jinge
A GOVERNOR LEAVING IIlS SHOE AT THE GATE OF A CITY ON

HIS DEPARTURE C

A WALLED VILLAGE lU

A SHAMPOOER AT WORK 11

POON'-KOO WONG IB

JUDICIAL TORTURE 32

JUDICIAL TORTURE 34

THE CANGUE . 45

FLOGGING A THIEF THROUGH THE STREETS 54

THE CANGUE 56

PRISONERS EXPOSED OUTSIDE A YAilUN 58

THE CANGUE ..... GO

THE CANGUE 64

HEAD OF A MALEFACTOR, EXPOSED AT NANKIN 68

SHACKLED AND MANACLED 7U

IN THE STOCKS 72

EXTERIOR OF A CONFUCIAN TEMPLE 00

xiv LIST OF ILLUSTUATIONS.

To fnce pige
A BUDDHIST TEMPLE ... 124

BIRD-CATCHERS 128

BUDDHIST NUNS 132

PIH-TE 142

A RAIN-GOD CARRIED IN PROCESSION 148

TEMPLE OF THE FIVE GENII, CANTON 160

THE THREE PURE ONES 165

TUTOR TEACHING GIRLS AT HOME - . . . 168

A B.A. WORSHIPPING HIS ANCESTRAL TABLETS, AFTER TAKING

HIS DEGREE 174

A VISIT OF CONGRATULATION TO A SUCCESSFUL LITERARY

COMPETITOR 17(J

A PUBLIC READER 178

SUBSCRIPTION LISTS 18()

WIFE AND CHILDREN OF AN OPIUM-SMOKER ........ 218

TRIAL OF AN ADULTRESS IN AN ANCESTRAL HALL 220

FLOGGING AN ADULTERER 226

A child's FIRST VISIT TO ITS GODMOTHER 232

BANDAGING THE FEET 234

A DISOBEDIENT SON IN FETTERS 236

A SON BEING PUT INTO A CANGUE BY HIS FATHER 238

OPIUM-SMOKERS ' . . 246

AN OPIUM-SMOKER 248

DOORS OF A CHINESE GENTLEMA:n's HOUSE 250

;LIST OF ILLUSTiUTlOXy. xv

']\) face i,iujr

LADIES BKING CARRIED DY THEIR SLAVES 254

A DRAGON BOAT 2GU

A FLOWER-BOAT- -FESTIVAL OF SHU-YEE 262

FIREWORKS 272

REMOVED TO THE HALL TO DIE 280

DEDICATING THE GRAVE-CLOTHES ... 288

WORSHIPPING AT THE TOMBS OP ANCESTORS 320

A VISIT OF CEREMONY 352

A MANDARIN IN AN OPEN CHAIR 372

A PEEP-SHOW 382

ATHLETES . 384

GAMBLERS 38(5

QUAIL-FIGHTING 392

ATHLETES 304

CANDIDATES FOR MILITARY DEGREES 390

CHINA.

CHAPTEPt I.

INTRODUCTORY.

In the befijinning, so Chinese writers relate, when all was dark-
ness and confusion, there carne from a vast mundane egg, which
divided itself into two parts, a human being, who is, and lias
always been known in Chinese annals as Poon-koo Wong. Of
the upper portion of the shell, this being formed the heavens,
and of the lower part he made the earth. To dispel the dark-
ness by which all was enveloped, he created with his right hand,
the sun to rule the da}^, and with his left hand, the moon to rule
the night. He made the stars also. Then lie called into existence
the five elements of earth, water, fire, metal, and wood.^ Chinese
writers say also that, in order to people the earth, Poon-koo
Wong made a cloud of vapour rise from a piece of gold, and a
similar cloud from a piece of wood. By breathing on them he
gave to the vapour which arose from the gold, a male principle ;
and to that which ascended from the wood, a female principle.
From the union of these two clouds or spirits, sprang a son and
daughter, Ying Yee and Cha-noee ; and the descendants of this
pair in due course of time, overspread the whole country. Thus,
according to Chinese cosmogony, came into being the land of
Han, and its vast population, in other words, the world and its
inhabitants. In honour of Poon koo Wong there are many

The five elements denote five innate essences, and the nature of each essonce
is indicated by its corresponding form of matter.

VOL. I. B

2 CHINA, [CHAP.

temples throughout China. The idol of this hero of antiquity
is an almost nude figure made of wood or clay. Around the
loins is a representation of an apron of leaves. Such, say the
Chinese, was his only covering, there being no clothes in those
earliest of days.

The primordia of all countries are enveloped in much that is
obscure and fabulous, and it is extremely difficult for the his-
torian to fix the period when civil history had its beginnings.
China is no exception, but there can, I think, be no doubt of the
great antiquity of the Chinese Empire. It is not, I believe, rash
to say that it has survived a period of four thousand years, with-
out having undergone any great change either in the laws by
which it is governed, or in the speech, manners, and customs of
its teeming population. It is generally allowed that celestial
observations were made at Babylon two thousand two hundred
and thirty-four years before the birth of Christ, and such obser-
vations are probably the strongest evidence which any nation
can produce in support of its claim to antiquity. These were
not in any way associated with the history of sublunary events.
Those made by the Chinese, on the contrary, have served to
mark the events of their national history. They speak of an
eclipse calculated in their country two thousand one hundred and
fifty-five years before Christ. That this eclipse really took place
was proved by the calculations of the missionaries of the order
of Jesus, who visited China in the sixteenth century. Gaubil,
one of the early Eoman Catholic missionaries to China — a man
pre-eminently distinguished for his mathematical attainments
— examined a series of thirty-six eclipses to which allusion is
made in the writings of Confucius. After careful examination
he concluded that of these thirty-six eclipses only two were
false, and two uncertain. The correctness of the remaining thirty-
two, he considered established beyond all reasonable doubt.
The chronology of the Chinese, however, extends considerably
beyond the first of these eclipses, and is substantiated by satis-
factory evidence as far back as the reign of the Emperor Yaou.
From the time of this sovereign, the history of China begins
to assume the appearance of truth, whereas the account of all
preceding reigns is clouded with fable and uncertainty.

I.] ITS ANTIQUITY AND NAMES. 3

To this large and ancient Asiatic Empire, many names are
given by its inhabitants. The principal are Tchung Kwock,
and Tien Chu. The term Tchung Kwock or JMiddlc Kingdom,
was given to the country on the arrogant supposition that it is
the grand central kingdom of the globe around which all the
other petty states are arranged as so many different satellites.
Tien Chu is the term in which the nation sets forth its heavenly
origin in contradistinction to the inferior genesis of all other
earthly states. By the tribes who dwell between China and the
eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, the country is called Cathay,
or the Flowery Land ; and as, before the discovery of the Cape
of Giood Hope, the highway from Europe to C!hina lay through
these countries, this was the name Europeans became acquainted
with. The word China is said to be derived from the name of
an emperor of the short-lived dynasty of Tsin. This emperor,
who was named Ching Wong, is said in Chinese annals to have
been one of the greatest heroes of whom China, or indeed, any
other land can boast. He extended his conquests over the
countries immediately contiguous to the western frontier of his
kingdom, and he drove the Tartar tribes in the north, back to
their mountain fastnesses, and completed the construction of
the Great Wall of China to prevent their incursions in future.
This monarch is said to have died about two hundred years
before Christ, so that tlie Great Wall of China may be con-
sidered to be more than two thousand years old. It can never
have been of any great use, except in checking the predatory
raids of the nomadic tribes of Tartary. It is fifteen hundred
miles long, and so extensive a line could with difficulty be pro-
tected at all points. It is now merely regarded as a monument
of great labour and antiquity.

China proper lies between 18^ and 41° north latitude. It has
its eastern extremity, where it borders on the Corea, marked
by 12-4° east longitude, while its western boundary, where it bor-
ders on the Burmese Empire and Western Thibet, is cut by 98°
east longitude. Thus it may be regarded as the greatest com-
pact country in the world, as it incloses an area of upwards of
one million three hundred thousand square miles. Of this vast
extent of surface, one side only is entirely washed by the ocean.

3 2

4 CHINA. [chap.

The sea-board, however, extends over two thousand five
liundred English miles. It includes many bays and estuaries, so
studded witli islands, that one of the most favourite and appro-
priate titles of the Emperor, is " the Sovereign of the ten
thousand isles." The ocean by which this vast coast is washed,
is divided into four sections. The portion of sea between
Cochin China and the island of Hainan is called the Tonquin
Gulf ; that between Hainan and Formosa, is known as the China
Sea ; that which stretches from the north cape of Formosa
along the shores of the respective provinces of Fo-kien, Che-kiang,
and Kiang-soo is called the Eastern Sea ; and the front section
which runs thence to the Corea, the Yellow Sea. As these seas,
which form the southern and eastern boundaries of the empire,
abound with shoals and banks — the most famous of which are
the Pratas and the Paracelles — navigation is attended with no
ordinary degree of risk and danger.

Of the oceans or seas of China, what are held to be the
north, south, east, and west seas are regarded as objects worthy
of adoration. They are worshipped by the officials at each vernal
and autumnal equinox, and sacrifices are offered on these occa-
sions. The ceremony of worshipping the eastern sea is per-
formed at Loi-chow, a prefectoral city in the province of Shan-
tung ; the western ocean is worshipped at Wing-tsi, a country
or district city in the province of Sheu-si ; the southern ocean at
Polo, in the province of Kwang-tung ; and the northern ocean
at Man-chow, in the prefecture of Shing-king, which is beyond
the great wall of China.

In 1725, the second year of his reign, the Emperor Yung
Ching conferred titles and other honours upon the four dragons,
which the Chinese suppose to inhabit these oceans. In
honour of Hin Yan, Ching Hung, Shung Tai, and Tchu Ming —
to introduce these dragons by their new names — theatrical
representations are, I believe, on no account allowed.

The great political divisions of the country are eighteen
provinces, viz., Shang-tung, Pe-cheli, Shan-si, and Shen-si in
the north ; Kwang-tung and Kwang-si in the south ; Che-kiang
Fo-kien and Kiang-soo in the east; Kan-soo, Sze-chuen, and
Yun-nan in the west; and Kgan-hui, Kiang-si, Hoo-nam,

I I GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 5

Hoo-peh, Ho-nam, and Kwei-cliow, which may be regarded as
the midland provinces.

Of these provinces Sze-chnen is the largest, Che-kiang tlie
smallest, and Kwang-tung, from its almost tropical position,
one of the most fertile. Each province is sub-divided into poos,
districts, or counties, and prefectures or departments. A poo,
the capital of which is a market town, consists of a number of
towns and villages ; a district or county, the capital of which is
a walled city, consists of a number of poos ; a prefecture or
department, the capital of which is also a walled city, consists
of a number of districts or counties, and a province, the capital
of which is also a walled city, consists of a number of pre-
fectures. The eighteen provinces of China Proper, in their
collective capacity, contain upwards of four thousand walled
cities, Pekin (which though a royal city, and the seat of the
central government, is without exception the dirtiest place I
ever entered) being the capital. The cities which rank next to
the capital in point of importance, though vastly superior to it
in almost every respect, are Nankin, Soo-chow, Hang-chow, and
Canton. The market towns and villages of this vast empire are
also very numerous.

The walls by which each county, and prefectoral, and pro-
vincial capital city is inclosed are from thirty to fifty or sixty feet
high. Those by which Pekin is surrounded are in appearance
by far the most imposing. In many instances, however, the
walls of Chinese cities are undertakings of great magnitude, and
are remarkable, both for the extent of their circumference and for
their massive appearance, their width affording space sufficient
for two carriages travelling abreast.

Thus, for example, those which inclose the city of Xankin
are eighteen English miles in circumference. At all events,
it took me six hours to walk round them ; and I walked, witliout
stopping once, at a rate exceeding three miles per hour. The
walls of Chinese cities are castellated, and provided Mitli
embrasures for artillery, and loop holes for musketry. At
frequent intervals there are watch-towers and barracks for
the accommodation of troops. On the top of the ramparts
in some places are piled large stones, which in times of

C CHINA. [niiAP.

tumult or war are thrown upon tlie heads of assailants. Such
stones are not by any means despicable missiles. At the com-
mencement of the last war which England, in alliance with
France, waged against Cliina, some soldiers of Her Majesty's
59th Eegiment were killed by them in the vicinity of the
Tai-ping gate of Canton. This primitive mode of warfare
belongs rather to the days when, as Plutarch relates, Pyrrhus
was killed at Argos by a tile thrown by a woman, than to
the nineteenth century ; or to those still more remote, when
Abimelech, the unworthy son of Gideon, met his death at
Thebez from a fragment of a millstone, Avliich in this case
also a woman's hand had thrown. In consequence of their
great antiquity, the walls of many of the northern cities
are neglected and dilapidated. Those by which the more
important and wealthy cities are inclosed, are in a very
perfect condition, and as a matter of course receive constant
attention. Owing to their great antiquity, however, portions
of them not unfrequently give way with a great crash. The
walls of Canton have to my own knowledge given way
at different points, on two or three occasions. Thus in the
month of June, 1871, a portion of the west wall of the city,
Avhich was very old, and had become saturated with recent
heavy rains, suddenly gave way, and buried in its ruins seven
dwelling-houses. Fortunately the occupants had betaken them-
selves to other dwelling-houses.

At the north, south, east, and west sides of each Chinese
city, there are large folding gates of great strength. These are
further secured by equally massive inner gates. Each of the
principal outer gates of the city of Nankin is strengthened
by three such inner gates. Of the gates of a Chinese city, the
one which is held in lionour above all others is that at
tlie south. Through the south gate, or gate of lionour, which is
especially regarded as the emperor's gate, all officials coming
to the city to hold office enter ; and when they vacate office, it
is by the same gate that they depart. No funeral procession
is allowed to pass through this gate, and the same prohibi-
tion excludes the bearers of night-soil, or of anything which
is regarded as unclean. The south gate of the capital of the

I.] CITIES AND TOWNS. 7

empire, is regarded as so sacred, tliat as a rule, it is kept closed,
and only opened when the emperor has occasion to pass that
way.

The streets of cities, towns, and villages are generally wider
in the northern than in the southern pro\dnces of the empire.
Those of Pelvin are very broad. Indeed in this respect they
equal those of European cities. The narrowness of the streets
in the south of China gives them the great advantage of
coolness during the summer months. Many of them are so
narrow as to shut out in a great measure the rays of a hot
tropical sun ; and in some instances they are partially covered
over during the hot season by the residents, wdth canvas,
matting, or thin planks of timber. Many of the towns, also, in
the north of Formosa, are protected in this way. The pathways
which run in front of the shops are arched over, and as they are
frequently constructed in the form of rude arcades, it is possible
to pass from one part of the town to another, without exposing
oneself to the sun or rain. Between the footpaths that are
covered in this way, there is a thoroughfare for sedan chairs and
beasts of burden. It appeared to me, however, that this centre
thoroughfare is more generally used as a public dust-bin than
as a street. The shopkeepers are in the habit of throwing into
it all sorts of refuse, which is not so speedily removed by the
scavengers of the town as it ought to be. Manka, which is one
of the principal towns in the north of Formosa, is above all
others remarkable for the arrangements of its streets after this
fashion. At Hoo-chow, a prefectoral city in the province of
Che-kiang, I passed through two streets which were constructed
in the form of arcades, which are not however so perfect as those
of Manka. The streets of Chinese cities are paved with granite
slabs, bricks, or paving stones. Those of the city of Canton are
paved with granite slabs. The streets of the city of Soo-chow —
so Ions famous for the wealth of its citizens— are in some cases
paved with granite slabs, and in others with paving-stones.

Under the streets of Chinese towns there are conduits into
Avhich the rain percolates as it falls through the chinks between
the granite slabs. Where the streets are paved with paving
stones, there are channels or gutters on either side ; these,

8 CIirXA. [chap..

liowever, are so narrow as to prove of little or no service, so
that they become pools of filth from which there is a fearful
stench in the summer months. The streets of Pekiu are
macadamised, or supposed to be so. They are considerably
raised in the centre, so that the rain-water may easily flow
into the conduits on either side. Eoad-metal is never laid
on them, however, and in the rainy season they are filthy to
a degree. In summer, they are so covered with dust as to
render travelling upon them a thing to be avoided. In the
evening, there is a most intolerable __stench ; for the conduits
are then opened, and the stagnant water they contain is scooped
out and scattered broadcast over the streets for the purpose of
laying the dust. The names which are given to the streets of
Chinese cities are generally very high-sounding. Thus we have
the Street of Golden Profits ; the Street of Benevolence and
Love ; the Street of Everlasting Love ; the Street of Longevity ;
the Street of One Hundred Grandsons : the Street of One
Thousand Grandsons ; the Street of Saluting Dragons ; the
Street of the Sweeping Dragon ; the Street of the Eeposing
Dragon ; the Street of Eefreshing Breezes ; the Street of One
Thousand Beatitudes ; the Street of a Thousandfold Peace ; the
Street of Five Happinesses; the Street of Ten Thousand
Happinesses ; the Street of Ninefold Brightness ; the Street of
Accumulated Goodness. Other streets are simply numbered, as
First Street, Second Street, Third Street, and so on.

The shops of which the streets of Chinese cities are formed,
and which are built of bricks, are of various sizes. They are
entirely open in front. There is, however, no rule without an
exception ; and many of the shops at Pekin are provided with
glass windows. I saw them also in the banking establishments
in Soo-cliow. These glass ^\■indows, however, are remarkably
mean, and they will not bear comparison with the windows which
add so much to the beauty and finish of the shops in the finer
streets of English towns. At the door of each shop stand two
or more long sign-boards, upon each side of which are painted
in neat, bold letters in gold, vermilion, or other gay colours, the
name of the " hong " and the various commodities which it con-
tains for sale. The name of the hong or shop consists of two

1. 1 STRKKTS AND SIlol'S. 9

characters. In some instances a shopkeeper places above the
door of his shop a small sign-board resembling in form some
particular article which he has for sale. Thus a collannaker
has a sign made in the form of a collar ; a hosier's sign resembles
a stocking ; a bootmaker's a boot, and a spectaclemaker's a pair
of spectacles. In some cases the signs are not shaped to re-
present the articles, but representations of these, such as liats,
fans, and even sticking-plaisters are painted on them. Some
shopkeepers not satisfied with having sign-boards suspended
from the side-posts of the doors of their shops, seek to make
themselves still better known by painting their names and the
wares in which they deal in large characters on the outer walls
of the cities in which they reside. On the walls of the cities
of Tang-yang and Chang-chow, on the banks of the Grand
Canal, I observed this to be especially the case. Boards on
which are recorded the names of each person residing in the
house are also, in compliance with law, placed on the entrance
door or outer wall of each dwelling-house. This custom
appeared to me to be much more observed in the rural districts
than in the cities and lowns. Above the entrance-door of each
shop hang lanterns ; and, from the roof, lamps of glass or horn
upon which are gaily-coloured representations of birds, flowers,
gardens, temples. These innumerable, bright-painted sign-
boards and lanterns give a Chinese street a most cheerful
and animated appearance. The streets of Canton which, in
this respect, are most conspicuous, are the Chaong-tan Kai ; the
Chong-yune-fong ; the Tai-sing Kai ; the Sue-sze-tai Kai ; the
Koo-taiKai; the Shaong-mun tai ; the Wye-oi Kai; and the
Tai-fat-sze-cheen.

The shops are not distributed indiscriminately throughout
Chinese towns, as is tlie case to a large extent in European cities.
They are confined to certain quarters, and even in the streets
appropriated to them, they do not occur promiscuously. Each
branch of trade has its special place to which it is usually
restricted. On each side of a street we should generally find
shops of the same kind, Near the entrance of his shop, the
master is often seated waiting with much patience for the arrival
of customers, No female members of the tradesman's family

10 CHIXA. [niiAP,

reside in apartments either above or behind the shop. In the
evening, therefore, when tlie shutters have been put up, the trades-
man hastens to his home in the more retired joarts of the town,
leaving his stock in charge of his assistants and apprentices.

The streets in which the gentry reside, consist generally of
well-built houses, which, like the majority of houses in China,
are of one story only. They extend, however, a considerable
distance to the rear, and are so large and spacious as to be
capable of containing a great number of persons. They are
approached by large folding-doors. As the walls which front the
streets are without windows, they present, in many cases, the
appearance of encampments. Detached houses— of which there
are many — bear a very striking resemblance to encampments.
This is particularly true of the houses of the gentry wiio reside
in the cities of Soo-chow, Yang-chow, Hang-chow, and Hoo-
chow ; and it has often struck me in my peregrinations through
the provinces of Kiang-si and Kiang-soo. Chinese houses have
no fire-places. In the cool season, therefore, the occupants have
to keep themselves warm by w^earing additional clothing, or by
means of portable brass or earthenware vessels in which charcoal
embers are kept burning. Owing to the houses and shops which
form its streets not being generally of the same height, or arranged
in a direct line, a Chinese town or village looks very irregular.
This irregularity is due to the fact that the houses are built
according to the principles of geomancy, which do not admit
of the ridge beams of each house in a street being placed in a
direct line. Were they so placed, evils of various kinds would,
it is said, be the inevitable result.

In the cities of Pekin, Cheefoo, Nankin, Shanghai, and other
northern and midland towns, there are public baths. Tliese in-
stitutions are evidently built more for utility than show, and are
most unassuming and unprepossessing erections. They are ap-
parently, one and all, hot baths, warmed by means of furnaces. The
vapour fills the bath-rooms, and gives them not merely the ap-
pearance, but the properties of sweating-rooms. In some Chinese
towns, so soon as tlie bath is ready, the proprietor advertises the
fact by means of a servant who walks through the streets beating
a well-toned gong, which he carries by his side. This plan was.

i.J ^lONUMKNTAL ARCfll'S. 11

1 noticed, especially practised by bath proprieters in the market
town of Cheefoo. To each bathroom is attached au ante-
chamber. This is used as an undressing-room, and servants take
charge of the clothes of the bathers. On the walls of the ante-
chamber of the public baths at Nankin were painted in large
Chinese characters several moral sentences very much as
follows : — Honesty is the best policy ; Do to your neighbour
as you would have him do to you, &c., &c.

The streets or squares of Chinese cities are not adorned like
the streets and squares of European cities, with stone, marble
or bronze statues of the great, the brave, and the learned. In
nearly all the principal cities of China there are, however,
monumental arches erected in honour of renowned warriors,
illustrious statesmen, distinguished citizens, learned scholars,
virtuous women, or dutiful sons or daughters. In some in-
stances such monuments are built of brick, in others of marble,
in others of old red sandstone, but more generally of granite.
A. Chinese monument of this nature consists of a triple arch or
gateway, that is, a large centre gate, and a smaller gateway on
each side. On a large polished slab, wdiich is placed above the
middle gateway, are figures done in sculpture, or Chinese
characters setting forth the object with which the citizens,
by imperial permission, erected the arch.

Some of these monuments are built in the form of pavilions,
or domes supported by granite columns. One of the largest
monumental arches in China of which I have heard is in the city
of Toong-ping Chow, in the province of Shan-tung. It is in honour
of a learned scholar named Laong How, who, at the age of eighty-
two years, succeeded in taking the very first place on the tripos
list at the examination for theHan-lin, or doctor's degree. This
arch, which is constructed of granite, and elaborately sculptured,
was erected during the Tai-sung dynasty. The inscription on
the slab, which is placed above the grand or centre arch, refers
to the scholastic attainments, not only of Laong How, but of
his son, who, it appears, had, three years prior to the success
of his father, obtained precisely similar honours. The city,
however, which is apparently conspicuous above all others for
ornamental arches is that of Iloo-chow Foo, in the province of

1-2 CTITXA. [ciiAr.

Clie-kiang. As the excursionist enters this city by the south
gate, an imposing sight, produced by these arches, meets his
view. They span a portion of the Tai-naur Kai, or great south
street of the city, and are placed in such close proximity to one
another as to make this thoroughfare worthy of the name of the
street of arches. Each of them is of vast dimensions and
richly sculptured. These arches are all in honour of men who
were born, and who lived and died in the prefecture of Hoo-
chow. Two of them are in honour of a father and his son
who had attained high literary honours. On another are
recorded the names of thirteen men, natives of Iloo-chow, who,
in one and the same year obtained at Pekin almost the highest
honours which are offered by the Chinese government to
stimulate the literati of the country. The only monument I
saw in the form of a pavilion or dome, is at Choo-loong-slian,
a suburban district of the city of Woo-see Hien, on the banks
of the Grand Canal. It is in honour of certain members of
the Wha family, who had successfully graduated in honours.
Again, the only monumental arch I saw made of earthenware,
stands in the vicinity of Yan-chow Foo, on the banks of the
Poyang Lake. It was erected, I believe, to perpetuate the
memory of a woman conspicuous by her virtue.

To save their cities from destructive fires, the Chinese observe
many necessary precautions. In the streets of many of their
cities wells are sunk, which are called Taiping-tsieng, or great
peace wells. They are large and contain abundant supplies oi'
water, and over the mouth of each a stone slab is placed, which
is only removed when any of the neighbouring houses is on
fire. It is provided by law, that there shall be placed in various
parts of a Chinese city, large tubs to be kept at all times full of
water. On the sides of each of these vessels, are written in large
Chinese letters the words " peace tubs," or cisterns. On the tops
of the houses also it is not unusual for the Chinese to place
earthenware jars containing water, so that they may always
have at hand sufficient water to enable them to suppress
incipient fires. In each large city there are several fire brigades,
maintained entirely by contributions on the part of the citizens.
The fire engines, water buckets, and lanterns which belong to

I.] MUNICIPAL FIRE BRIGADES. 13

them, are kept, as a rule, in the different temples of the city;
and each brigade is distinguished by a peculiar name. To
each guild a fire brigade is attached, and the expenses of
the brigade are defrayed by the membei's of the guild. The
officers and men of the brigade are provided with a distinc-
tive uniform or dress, and on their hats are recorded in large
Chinese characters the name or number of their brigade, and
the words Kow-fo or fire extinguisher.

Besides these provisions by the citizens themselves for the
purpose of checking or putting out fires, the members of the
local government of each city are called upon to render their
assistance. By way of illustration let me take Canton. Each
magistrate of the city has in his service several men, whose
duty it is, on the occasion of a fire, to prevent robberies. Thus
the Kwong-hip, or commandant of the Chinese garrison in
Canton, has under him, besides others, eighty men, of whom
twenty are to assist in preventing robberies when a fire takes
place, and sixty to assist in putting out the fire. Of these
men, forty are stationed at the Five Genii gate of the city, and
forty in the western suburb. Under the immediate command of
the governor there are two hundred men, wdiose duty in a great
measure consists in helping firemen to subdue conflagrations.
Throughout the city of Canton there are forty-eight guard houses,
and from each of these, in the event of a fire, two men are told
off to hasten to the scene. At the close or commencement of
each succeeding month throughout the year, the provincial
judge and the provincial treasurer, both of whom are very high
officials, are supposed to inspect all the government servants
whose duty it is to assist in putting out fires. Once more,
with the view of making all Chinese officials active in the
discharge of these duties, it is enacted that, in the case of
eighty houses being destroyed by fire, all the officers of the
city in which the conflagration occurred shall be degraded in
rank one step ; and that in the case of ten houses being
destroyed the matter shall be reported to the central govern-
ment at Pekin. A few days after a conflagration the memliers
of each respective fire brigade which was present on- the occasion,
receive as an acknowdedgment of their good services roast pitjs,

H CHINA. [chap.

jars of wine, and small sums of money. The men to whom is
assigned the dangerous duty of holding the hoses attached to
the engines, receive on such occasions extra rewards. Wounded
firemen are remunerated according to the nature of their
wounds. The Chinese are, in my opinion, most excellent
firemen. They very quickly arrive at the scene of action, and,
as a rule, they are most prompt in extinguishing the flames.
They are also very daring. During the late war between Great
Britain and China, when Canton was set on fire by bomb shells
from Sir M. Seymour's guns, I observed from the top of the
British factory the various fire brigades steadily persevering in
their attempts to subdue the flames, in the face of a constant
fire of shot and shell.

Persons who, through carelessness or otherwise, are the cause
of fires, are, when caught, severely punished. I remember a
large fire occurring in the month of May, 1866, at Honam, a
suburb of the city of Canton. The fire originated in consequence
of the carelessness of three women, and upon being apprehended
they were exposed for several days in cangues or wooden collars
at the gates of a temple in honour of the Queen of Heaven.
In the month of August, 1871, I saw a respectable druggist
named Wong Kwok-hing exposed in a cangue or wooden
collar, at the end of the Tung-hing Kai, a street in the south-
western suburb of Canton. To the carelessness of this druggist
a fire was attributed, which, in the preceding month of March,
had destroyed upwards of forty houses. The unfortunate man
was daily exposed in this degrading manner for a whole month.

But it is not necessary in these introductory remarks to give
a detailed description of the characteristic features and muni-
cipal arrangements of Chinese cities and towns. Tliese will
frequently come before the reader in the course of this work.

The population of China is now estimated at a very high
figure. In 1743 it did not, according to Grosier, exceed two
hundred millions of souls. At a census which was taken during
the reign of Kien-lung Wong, in the latter half of the six-
teenth century, the population, according to the returns which
were forwarded by each province to the central government at
Pekin, amounted to 307,467,000 souls. According to a census

1.] POPULATION. MORAL CILVRAGTER. 15

taken by the Chinese in 1813, the popidation was 300,279,897;
and in 1842, according to Sacliaroff, it had reached tlie stupen-
dous figure of 414,686,994. This seems almost incredible.
There is no doubt^ however, that this vast empire is densely
populated in perhaps the majority of its districts. During the
rebellion which disturbed the peace of China from 1847 to 18G2,
there was probably a considerable decrease of the population.
Innumerable cities, towns, and villages were then reduced ^ to
ruinous heaps, and the inhabitants put to the sword.

Of the moral character of the people, who have multiplied
until they are " as the sand which is upon the sea shore,"
it is very difficult to speak justly. The moral character
of the Chinese is a book written in strange letters, which
are more complex and difficult for one of another race, re-
ligion, and language to decipher than their own singularly
compounded word-symbols. In the same individual virtues
and vices, apparently incompatible, are placed side by side.
Meekness, gentleness, docility, industry, contentment, cheer-
fulness, obedience to superiors, dutifulness to parents, and
reverence for the aged, are in one and the same person, the
companions of insincerity, lying, flattery, treachery, cruelty,
jealousy, ingratitude, avarice, and distrust of others. The
Chinese are a weak and timid people, and in consequence,
like all similarly constituted races, they seek a natural refuge
in deceit and fraud. But examples of moral inconsistency
are by no means confined to the Chinese, and I fear that
sometimes too much emphasis is laid on the dark side of
their character— to which St. Paul's well-known description
of the heathen in his own day is applicable — as if it had
no parallel amongst more enlightened nations. Were a
native of the empire, with a view of acquiring a thorough
knowledge of the English people, to make himself familiar
with the records of our police and other law courts, the
transactions that take place in what we call the " com-
mercial world," and the scandals of what we term "society,"
he would probably give his countrymen at home a very one-

' Of the correctness of this statement I had ample and painful evidence wheu
travelling through the central provinces in 1865-66.

16 CHINA. [chap.

sided and depreciatory account of this nation. Moreover, we
must remember that we are in possession of the innumerable
blessings of Christianity. Where they do not take refuge in
the indifference of atheism, the Chinese are the slaves of grossly
superstitious religions ; and designing priests, geomancers, for-
tune-tellers, and others, endeavour by cunning lies and artifices
to keep them in a state of darkness worse than Egyptian. Under
the political and social conditions of their existence, it is extra-
ordinary what an amount of good is to be found in their national
character. Their religion is a mass of superstitions. Their
government is, in form, that which of all others is perhaps
most liable to abuse^an irresponsible despotism. Their judges
are venal ; their judicial procedure is radically defective, and
has recourse in its weakness to the infliction of torture ; their
punishments are — many of them — barbarous and revolting ;
their police are dishonest, and their prisons are dens of cruelty.
A considerable mass of the population does not know how to
read,^ and nearly everywhere there is a prejudiced ignorance of
all that relates to modern progress. Their social life suffers
from the baneful effects of polygamy, and, to a certain extent,
of slavery, aud their marriage laws and customs hold woman
in a state of degrading bondage. This is a grave bill of indict-
ment against the religious, political, civil, and social institutions
of any nation; and yet, notwithstanding conditions so little
favourable to the development of civil and social virtues, the
Chinese may be fairly characterised as a courteous, orderly,
industrious, peace-loving, sober, and patriotic people.

I quote from an official report on the Tien-tsin massacre,
written in 1871, by Mr. G. F. Seward, then American consul
at Shanghai : —

" The prevailing tendency among foreigners in China is to
debase the Chinese to a very low place in the scale of nations,
to belittle their intellectual capacity, to condemn their morals,
to declare them destitute of vitality and energy. . Each person
who argues the case finds facts ready for his use which seem to
him to demonstrate his o"svn view.

" I confess that the case is different with me. Faith in the
race is a matter of intuition with me. I find here a steady

^ This remark applies espfcially to the Hakkas or wandering people.

I.] MORAL CHARACTER AND PROGRESS. 17

adherence to the traditions of the past, a sober devotion to tlie
calls arising in the various rehUions of life, an absence of shift-
lessness, an honest and, at least, somewhat earnest grappling
with the necessities and difficulties which beset men in their
humbler stages of progress, a, capacity to moralize witlial, and an
enduring sense of right and wrong. These all form wliat must
be considered an essentially satislactory basis and groundwoi'k
of national character. Among the people there is practical
sense, among the gentry scholarly instincts, the desire for ad-
vancement, the disposition to work for it with earnestness and
constancy. Amongst the rulers, a sense of dignity, breadth of
view, considering their information, and patriotic feeling. AVho
"will say tliat such a people have not a future more wonderful
even than their past ? Why may not the wheels of progress
and empire roll on until the countries of Asia witness again
their course ? "

These views are, in the main, I believe, sound ; and, as the
wheels of progress and empire may be said to be typified in
modern days by the wheels of the locomotive, which has
invested man with new powers over time and space, it is not
unlikely that the hope which Mr. Seward expresses may be
fulfilled at no remote period. The first steam locomotive
in China already draws its trains in the vicinity of Shanghai.
It is more important that Chinese exclusiveness has percep-
tibly yielded to the repeated assaults made upon it, certainly
not always in a Cliristian spirit, by the Western nations. This
exclusiveness and jealousy of foreigners is by no means to be
wondered at. During centuries, which take us back to the
beginnings of civil history, the Chinese have developed their
civilisation and their thoroughly original type of nationality in a
region which Nature herself has rendered difficult of access on
its landward sides by barriers of mountain, jungle, and desert,
and which for all practical purposes was inaccessible on its
southern and eastern seaboard, until science converted the
separating seas into the world's highways. Prejudices of race
are barriers to intercourse of marvellous strength, and are only
to be removed by the constant friction of generations. Up to
the present time we have been regarded by the " flowery people "
as barbarians ; and too often in our intercourse with them we
have failed — not to speak of graver shortcomings — in courteous

VOT„ T. (•

18 CHINA. [CHAP. I-

appreciation. May the Embassy ^vhich, now for the first time,
China has sent to our shores, mark the nearer approach of days
when tlie West will be able to communicate, without let or
hindrance, to this venerable Asiatic empire the multiplied
benefits of a civilisation which, as we are too ready to forget, in
boasting of its triumphs, had its earliest developments in the
East.

VOON-KOO WONG.

CHAPTEPi IT.

GOVERNMENT.

The form of govcrmnent of this vast empire is an absolute
monarchy. The emperor regards himself as the interpreter of
the decrees of Heaven, and he is recognised by the people over
whom he rules as the connecting link between the gods and
themselves. He is designated by such titles as the Son of
Heaven, the Lord of Ten Thousand Years, the Imperial Supreme;
and he is supposed to hold communion with the deities at his
pleasure, and to obtain from them the blessings of which he,
personally, or the nation may stand in need. This miglity
monarch is assisted in the administration of the government
by a cabinet council, which consists of four great ministers
of state. In addition to this council there are six supreme
tribunals for the conduct, in detail, of all goverinnental business.
These triljunajs, which are designated by the general appellation
of Loo-poo, are as follows : — First, that whicli is termed Lee-
poo. This ottice is divided into four departments. In the first
of these, ofticers are selected to fill the various offices which
are deemed necessary for the due administration of the affairs
of the respective provinces and districts of the Empire. The
second takes cognizance of all such officials. The third affixes
tlie seal to all edicts and proclamations ; and the fourth keeps
a register of the extraordinary merits and good services of
distinguished men. The second board or tribunal is named Hoo-
poo, and to it is entrusted the care and keeping of the imperial

c 2

20 CHINA. [chap.

revenue. The third board is named Lee-poo. To it is entrusted
the superintendence of all the ancient usages and religious rites
of the people, and the preservation of all temples endowed by
the imperial government. The fourth board is named Ping-
poo. It has the care of all the naval and military establish-
ments throughout the empire. The fifth is called King-poo.
It has the supervision of all criminal proceedings. The sixth
and last, which is termed Kung-poo, superintends all public
works, such as mines, manufactures, highways, canals, bridges,
&c. Over each of these tribunals presides a chief minister, or
counsellor, whose duty it is to lay the decisions of his par-
ticular board before the cabinet council of four great ministers
of state. "When the decisions of th^ boards have been
thoroughly discussed by the cabinet, they are submitted with
becoming reverence to the notice of his imperial majesty. The
power of these ministers, however, is almost nominal, as the
emperor regards himself as responsible to none but the gods,
whom he is supposed to represent. The people are thus in the
hands of the emperor as children in the hands of a parent.
But though there is outwardly a contempt manifested by the
emperor for any or every suggestion which may be made to
him by his ministers, there can be no doubt that, in private,
much heed is given by his majesty to the advice of all confi-
dential servants of the State. Very few, indeed, of the sove-
reigns of China have been sufficiently endued with the wisdom
of this Avorld to be able to rule without the counsel or advice
of others. The sanction of the emperor to all laws and edicts
is conveyed by a seal, and all remarks made by his majesty
are recorded in letters of red, by what is styled the vermilion
pencil.

Besides the various councils there are two others — the Too-
cha-yun, and the Tsung-pin-fow. The former is a board of
censors. The censors are supposed to attend the meetings of the
board or councils already described, to ascertain whether or not
intrigues or plots are being concocted to weaken the stability
of the government. Members of this board are not unfrequently
sent into the provinces to ascertain how matters of business
are being conducted there. Spies are sometimes sent Ity the

ii.l BOARDS OF GOVERNMENT. 21

censors to different parts of the Empire for the purp.QSg of scru-
tinizing the public and private conduct of any otHcial or oflicials
upon whom suspicion may rest. Of these emissaries the local
authorities and principal citizens of all large and influential
cities stand in great awe. His Excellency An, a commissioner
fro7u this board, arrived at Canton in the autumn of the year
1862, and suddenly placed under arrest several unsuspecting
oflicials and citizens of distinction ; and in obedience to his
orders some of them, including the notorious Chong Shun and
Too Pat, were executed in a most summary manner.

In the Pckin Gazette of November 12th, 1871, a statement
was published — translated in the China Mail of December 23rd,
1871 — to the effect that a censor had brought to the imperial
notice a case of triple murder, in which a native of Chekiang
was the complainant. The petitioner stated that his brother
was intercepted on his way from market to purchase peas, and
was surrounded, on account of an old grudge, by a family of
four brothers, with the assistance of two outsiders. Two men
who were carrying the peas were killed on the spot. The
murderers then carried off the petitioner's brother to their house,
where they confined him, and afterwards put him to death by
the sword. The matter was reported to the then district
magistrate Ng, but, in consequence of the Taiping rebellion,
it could not be investigated. Ng's successor in the magistracy,
To by name, had the offenders arrested ; but through tlie
artful device of an underling who had been bribed, they were
set at large. Emboldened by their liberation, the murderers
disentombed the coffins, and mutilated the remains of the
deceased, with a view to the destruction of all means of identi-
fication. Eor this offence another magistrate, AVong, sent out
officers to arrest them, but the police were resisted. The suc-
cessor of this magistrate ordered the military to assist in
the apprehension of the murderers, but they managed to make
their escape. The matter had been allowed to remain in
abeyance for fourteen years, although three lives were concerned.
The prefect had been petitioned twenty-five times, the inten-
dant of the circuit nine times, the governor once, and the
governor-general once, and yet the complainant had not been

22 CHINA. [CHAP.

able to obtain redress. Iteference had invariably been made
to the magistrate to have the murderers arrested, but tliey were
allowed to enjoy their ease at home.

The second of these two boards, the Tsung-pin-fow, consists
of six high officials. These keep a register of the births, deaths,
marriages, and relations of the princes of the blood royal, and
report at times upon their conduct. The regi.ster in which the
names of the lineal descendants of the imperial family are
recorded is of yellow paper ; that in which the names of the
collateral branches are recorded is of red paper. These records
are submitted to the emperor every ten years, on which occa-
sions his majesty confers titles and rewards. These titles are
divided into four classes, the first being hereditary, the second
honorary, the third for services rendered to the State, and the
fourth rewards due to literary attainments. It is imperative
upon the ministers constituting the board of Tsung-pin-fow to
furnish at frequent intervals the various tribunals styled Loo-
poo with reports as to which of the sons of the emperor
possesses in the highest perfection the essential qualifications of
a good sovereign. These reports, like all others, are submitted to
the emperor. The emperor of China has the power of nomin-
ating his successor, whether indeed the person nominated be a
member of the blood-royal family or not. The desire to per-
petuate his dynasty scarcely ever admits of the emperor select-
ing one to fill the throne who is not a member of the reigning
family. As a general rule each emperor is succeeded by his
eldest son. Should the latter be regarded as incapable of ad-
ministering the affaks of state, the second or third son is called
upon to reign. When the emperor is childless, a selection is
made from a collateral brancli of the same dynasty. As in
almost all Chinese families, or clans, the members of tlie im-
perial house are very numerous. At one time it was a practice
to give official employment to each of these scions of royalty.
The custom invariably entailed no ordinary degree of trouble
and anxiety on the imperial government by giving rise to con-
spiracies and rebellions, and it was abandoned. Each prince
has now to rest satisfied with the high-sounding, but empty
title of king — a royal rank of which he may be deprived in the

II.] Till': SONS OF TlIK KMI'Klloi;. 23

event of any act on his part being doeniod beneath the dignity
of his family.

The people of China are taught to regard the emperor as the
representative of heaven, and the empress as the representative
of mother earth. In this position she is supposed to exert an
influence over nature, and to possess a transforming power. One
of her principal duties is to see that, at stated seasons of the
year, worship is duly and reverently paid to the tutelary deity of
silkworms. It is also her duty carefully to examine the weaving
of the silk stuffs which the ladies of the imperial harem weave
and make into garments for certain state idols. The empress
is supposed to be profoundly ignorant of all political matters.
There are instances on record, however, of empresses of China
liaving manifested the greatest knowledge of these subjects.
The present empress-dowager — the mother of the late sove-
reign, Tung-cliee — succeeded, through her curious inquiries into
state alfairs, in bringing to light a conspiracy of certain mem-
bers of the cabinet council to depose and murder her son.
The principal conspirators were decapitated, whilst others, not
so deeply implicated, were sent into perpetual banishment. But
besides the empress, the emperor has other wives. Tliese are
eight in number, and have the rank and title of queens. These
royal ladies are divided into two classes, the first of which
consists of three, and the second of five queens. In addition
to the wives there are, of course, several concubines.

The choice of an empress, and of queens, turns solely on the
personal qualities or attractions of those selected, without any
reference whatever to their connections or family reputation.
They are selected in the following manner. The empress-
dowager with her ladies, or, in her absence, a royal lady who
has been invested with authority for the purpose, holds what
may not inaptly be termed a " drawing-room," to attend which
Tartar ladies and the daughters of bannermen are summoned
from various parts of the empire. The lady pronounced to be
the helle of the assembly is chosen to be in due time raised to
the dignity of empress. TJjose who are placed next in personal
attractions are selected for the rank of queens. The daughters
of bannermen of the seventh, eiglith, and ninth ranks, a})pear

24 CHINA. [chap.

before the empress-dowager, in order that a certain number of
them may be appointed to fill the respective oftices of " ladies "
and women of the bedchamber. This ceremony is, I believe,
observed once a year. Queens were chosen for the ancient
kings of Persia in a similar manner— to use the words of the
book of Esther, in which we find evidence of the practice — " out
of the choice of virgins." The young ladies admitted into the
imperial zenana are, as a rule, daughters of noblemen and
gentlemen ; but as personal beauty is one of the chief qualifi-
cations for the seraglio, the inmates of the palace are, in some
instances, women who have been raised from the humbler
walks of life. Indeed, a woman of the lower orders of society
was, it is said, the mother of the Emperor Hien-fung. She
was the keeper of a fruit stall, and being exceedingly fair
and beautiful, she on one occasion attracted the attention of
the chief minister of state, \^'hilst he was passing in pro-
cession through the street in which she resided. Being greatly
pleased with her beauty, he obtained for her a home under
the imperial roof of Taou-kwang, where in due course she
became the mother of the ill-fated sovereign, Hien-fung. I
was residing in China when a wife was selected in this way
for the late emperor, Tung-chee. The name of their new
Empress was made known to the Chinese people by the Pekin
GfAzette of the 11th of March, 1872. The proclamation issued
in the names of the two empresses dowager, set forth that a
lady named A-lut'e had been selected to become the kind
com]3anion of the emperor, the sharer of his joys, and the
partaker of his sorrows. The Gazette further informed the
people that she was the daughter of Ch'ung Chi, a junior officer
in the Hanlin College. His rank, as evidenced by his buttons,
corresponded to that of a prefect or ruler of a department.
Ch'ung Chi is, as a matter of course, of Mongolian blood. He
is also a bannerman of the plain blue banner. He is the son of
one Saishanga, an officer of some notoriety in the early part of
the previous reign, who lost the favour of his sovereign in 1853,
owing to his inability to cope with the Taiping rebellion. In
consequence of the defeats which he sustained at the hands of
the rebels, he was degraded, and withdrew from public life. In

11.] THE Eill'liESS AND gCEEXR. 25

1801, his private mansion-house in Pekin was confiscated by the
government, and converted into the Tsnng-li Yamun. He is a
man of great learning, having been Chiiang-ylian, or first graduate
(senior wrangler or senior classic), at the triennial examination
for the doctor's degree in 1865. The mother of A-lut'c is a
daughter of the late Tuanhua, Prince of Cheng. This prince
was the recognized leader of the anti-foreign party which,
towards the close of the reign of Hien-fung, gave so nnich
trouble to the representatives of foreign nations. This party,
however, was in the month of ISTovember, 1861, most fortunately
overthrown by the Prince of Kung, who was upheld by the
empress-mother. The leaders of the defeated anti-foreign party
were tried and decapitated, and as a mark of imperial favour
Tuanhua was permitted to terminate his existence by suicide.
In the same issue of the Pekin Gazette to which we have alluded,
was a second decree, appointing three other ladies to be mem-
bers of his imperial majesty's harem. Of the ladies in question,
the first is a daughter of a clerk in the board of punishments ;
the second is a daughter of a prefect ; and the third the daughter
of Saishanga, the grandfather of A-lut'^. The ladies of the
royal household are under the charge of eunuchs, who are called
upon to discharge the usual duties of royal seraglios.

In each of the provinces into which the empire is divided
there is a most formidable array of officials, all of whom act
directly or indirectly under their respective boards or tribunals.
Thus in the province of Kwang-tung,^ which I venture to select
to illustrate the working of the government in each province,
there are the following civil mandarins : — viz., a governor-
general, a governor, a treasurer, a sub-commissioner, a literary
chancellor, a chief justice, — the last four being of equal rank —
six tcmtais of equal rank, ten prefects of equal rank, and
seventy-two district or county rulers of equal rank. Each of
these officials has a council to assist him in the discharge of
the duties of his office. Besides these officials, every town
and village in the empire has its governing body, so that the
number of officials in each province is very great. The various

^ Kwang-tung has .an area computed at more than ninety-seven thousand
square miles, and a population estimated at somewhere about nineteen millions.

2G CHINA. [chap.

classes of officers are in regular subordination. Thus, the
governing body of a village is subordinate to the ruler of the
district or county in which it is situated. The district or county
ruler is subject to the prefect of the department of which his
district is a part. The prefect is, in turn, subordinate to the
tautai; the taiitai to the chief justice or criminal judge, and so
on, step by step to the governor-general or viceroy. Each
official stands in loco parentis to the subordinate immediately
below him, while the mandarins are regarded as standing in a
paternal relation to the people they rule. The principle per-
vades all conditions of society down to the humblest subjects
of the realm, those who are in the higher walks of life acting
the part of parents to those of an inferior grade, while over
all is the all-embracing paternity of the emperor.

Chinese officials of certain grades are not allowed to
hold office in the provinces of which they are natives,
nor are they, without imperial permission, allowed to con-
tract marriages in the provinces in which they have been
appointed to hold office. To preclude the possibility of
their acquiring too much local influence in the districts, or
prefectures, or provinces where they are serving, they are
removed, in some instances triennially, and in others
sexennially, to other posts of duty. All officers are supposed
to be appointed by the emperor on the recommendation of
the board of ceremonies, the members of this board being
especially regarded as the advisers of his imperial majesty
in the bestowal of political patronage. The candidates for
office are, or, according to law, ought to be, men who have
graduated at the great literary examinations. The members
of the board of ceremonies, however, are not at all unwilling,
for a consideration, to submit to the notice of his majesty for
office the names of men whose literary rank has been bought
rather than attained by study. The salaries attached to govern-
ment offices are very small. This is a system which leads to
most scandalous and irregular proceedings. Thus the mandarins
of China, though drawing quarterly from the imperial exchequer
the smallest possible amount of pay, are enabled, by the accu-
mulated gains of fraud and avarice, to retire from office as men

ji.] MANDARINS. 27

of wealth and substance. They are, and have been for a con-
siderable time past, the very curse of the country, the palmer-
worm at the root of its prosperity. By their misrule they
have plunged this fair land into that deplorable anarchy, con-
fusion, and misery, for which it is now conspicuous amongst
nations.

The military mandarins of the province of Kwang-tung are
also very numerous. Of this class the Tartar general is of course
recognized as the head.

The duties which devolve upon a governor-general, or gover-
nor of a province are very arduous. He is responsible to the
emperor, who is responsible to the gods, for the general peace
and prosperity of his province. It is his duty to take cognizance
of all the officials, and to forward triennially to the board of
civil appointments at Pekin the name of each officer under his
administration, Mith a short report on his general behaviour.
The information is furnished to the viceroy or governor by the
immediate superior of each officer. Should the governor-general
be accused of any offence, an imperial commission to investigate
tlie charge is at once appointed.

As I shall have occasion to point out more fully afterwards,
there are nine marks of distinction by which the rank or position
of officials of the Chinese Emi:)ire may be rea<iily recognised.
A member of the iirst class, or highest order of rank, wears on
the apex of his cap a dark-red coral ball, or button, as it is more
generally called. Members of the second class wear a light-
red ball or button of the same size. The third class is dis-
tinguished by a ball of a light-blue, and the fourth by a ball of
a dark-blue colour. An official of the fifth class is recognised
by a ball of crystal, -ssdiilst a ball of mother-of-pearl is the
distinguishing badge of the mandarin of the sixth class. Mem-
bers of the seventh and eighth classes wear a golden ball, and
of the ninth and last class, a silver ball. Each officer may
be further distinguished by the decoration of a peacock's
feather. This feather is attached to the base of the ball on
the apex of his hat, and slopes downward. It is worn at
tlie back. The first of tlie outer garments worn by an official
is a long, loose robe of blue silk, richly embroidered with threads

28 CHINA. [chap.

of gold. It reaches the ankles of the wearer, and is bound round
his waist by a belt. Above this robe is a tunic of violet colour,
which extends a short way below the knees. The sleeves of this
tunic are wide and very long, extending very considerably
over the hands. They are usually folded back over the wrists.
When an official is permitted to approach the imperial pre-
sence with the view of conferring with his majesty, or of per-
forming the kow-tow, which in China is the ordinary act of
obeisance, etiquette prescribes that he shall wear the sleeves of
the tunic stretched over his hands. This renders him more
or less helpless. The custom is of ancient origin, and was
adopted to preclude the possibility of any attempt on the life
of the emperor by those whose duties call them occasionally
into his presence. A custom precisely similar prevailed, it
would appear, in the court of Persia. It is thus described by
Mitford in his history of Greece : —

" The court dress of Persia had sleeves so long, that when
unfolded they covered the hand ; and the ceremonial required of
those who approached the royal presence to enwrap the hands so
as to render them helpless."

On the breast-plate and back-plate of the tunic of a civil
mandarin there is embroidered in silk, a bird with wings out-
stretched, standing upon a rock in the midst of a tempestuous
ocean, and gazing at the sun. This bird varies in kind
according to the rank of the wearer. In the chapter on
sumptuary laws, the reader will find a detailed account of the
emblems used to indicate the different ranks of officials. Over
his shoulders each officer wears a short tippet of silk, which is
also richly embroidered, and which, by the device it bears,
indicates the literary rank to which the wearer has attained.
Piound his neck there is a long chain of one hundred and eight
balls or beads. It is called the Chu-Chu, and is intended to
remind the wearer of the land of which he is a native. Of the
one hundred and eight beads of which the chain consists,
seventy-two are supposed to represent so many precious stones,
minerals, and metals native to China ; and the remaining thirty-
six represent as many constellations or planets which shed their

.11] COURT DRESS: YAMUNS. 29

benign rays on the country. To the left side of this chain are
attached two very short strings of smaller beads, supposed
to impress upon the mind of the wearer the reverence he owes
to his ancestors, and the filial piety at all times due to his
parents and guardians. To the right side of the chain is at-
tached a short string of smaller beads, to remind the wearer
of the allegiance which he owes to the imperial throne of his
country. These robes and decorations of state and office arc
not confined to officials only. Honorary rank can be purchased,
and it is common to see respectable citizens not at all con-
nected with the service of the government attired in costly and
magnificent robes, similar in their decorations to those worn
by the highest officers of state.

Government residences are provided for all Chinese officials.
They are called yamuns, and in some cases are very extensive,
occupying several acres of land. From the roof of the halls of
many of these official residences are suspended richly gilded
boards, on which in large Chinese characters are set forth good
and excellent words. Some of these boards are the gifts of suc-
ceeding emperors to former occupants who had distinguished
themselves by their faithful services. To the yamuns are
attached public offices for the transaction of Ijusiness, and to
those which are respectively occupied by district rulers, prefects,
tautais, chief justices, and revenue commissioners, very extensive
prisons are attached.

District rulers, prefects, and chief justices are the officials
more particularly appointed to preside in courts for the admin-
istration of justice in all cases which may come before them,
whether of a civil or criminal nature. Each of these is assist-
ed in the discharge of his duties by a deputy, or deputies.
In order, however, to explain fully how justice is adminis-
tered in China, it is necessary to state that an accused person
is first brought before the gentry or elders of his village or
district. Tliese punish an offender if his crime be of a minor
nature, either by imprisonment in one of the public halls of the
village, or by exposing him in a camjue for some time at the
corner of one of the most frequented thoroughfares of the
village, or in the immediate vicinity of the place where the

30 CHINA. [chap.

crime was committed. Should the case, however, appear to
require the consideration of a higher tribunal, the prisoner,
together with tlie depositions and comments on them, is for-
warded by the gentry to the mandarin, or ruler of the poo to
which the village belongs. A poo, as I have explained, is a
political division of a province, and consists of a number of
villages. On the 9th of July, 1873, I was present at an
examination of this kind. It was held in the village of Fong-
chuen, in the county of Pun-yu, and was conducted by the
elder of the village. A thief, called Lee Ayune, had been
caught the night before in the act of robbing a house. The
elders were not satisfied with his confession of that crime, and
insisted upon his making a public declaration of all his thefts
during the preceding four years. The facts they carefully
recorded, and at the close of his examination the prisoner was
forwarded, with the depositions, to the ruler of the poo.

Should the mandarin, or ruler of the poo, find that it is within
his jurisdiction to punish the prisoner, he does so. Should he
decide that the case is one which ought to be submitted to the
notice of his superior, he, without delay, sends the prisoner,
together with the depositions, and his own comments on them,
to the ruler of the district or county of which the poo is a divi-
sion. The district ruler resides in the county town, which,
like all county towns in China, is inclosed by a high castellated
wall. Unless the case appears to require the consideration of
a higher tribunal, the district ruler deals with it. Otherwise,
he sends the prisoner to the prefect of his department. The
prefects reside in their respective cities, which are also in-
closed by high castellated walls. If the prefect sends the
case to a higher tribunal, the prisoner is sent to the provincial
capital. Here the provincial or criminal judge, or chief justice
as we would term him, has his residence. The chief justice,
who only tries those accused of capital offences, submits his
decisions to the notice of the governor-general, or governor of
tlie province, as the case may be ; and before a sentence of the
chief justice can be carried into effect, it is necessary that
the criminal should be taken into the presence of the governor-
general, or governor, to make an acknowledgment of his guilt.

II.] AD.MINI8TRATI0N OF JUSTICE. 31

Until certain questions have been answered by the prisoner
in the presence and in the hearino- of the governor-general or
his deputy, the sentence recorded a'gainst his name can neither
be ratified nor carried into effect. Should tlie prisoner stand
convicted of treason, or piracy, or highway robliery, the gover-
nor-general can order the execution of tlie prisoner without
any reference whatever to the will of the emperor. Should a
prisoner, however, be proved guilty either of patricide, or ma-
tricide, or fratricide, &c., it is the duty of the governor-general to
bring the case under the notice of the members of the board of
punishments at Pekin ; and the president of this board submits
it in turn to the consideration of the members of the cabinet
or great council of the nation. In due course it is laid by this
august body before the emperor. It is said that his majesty
carefully examines the depositions in all such cases before con-
firming the sentence and ordering the execution. It is also
customary for the governor-general or governor to forward to
Pekin at the close of each year a register of the names of
criminals adjudged worthy of deatli. These registers are also
received by the president of the board of punishments, and
forwarded through the cabinet council to the emperor, who
inspects each register, and with a vermilion pencil makes a red
mark opposite to three or four names on each page. The registers
are then returned to the provincial governors in order that the
law may take its course wdth regard to the prisoners against
whose names the imperial mark has been placed. On the receipt
of the register from the emperor, the execution of these criminals
is carried into effect without any loss of time. For the viceroy
not to pay peremptory and implicit obedience to the imperial
will in all matters would be regarded as higldy treasonable.
The prisoners whose names have been passed over by the ver-
milion pencil do not, however, obtain a free pardon. Their
names are submitted a second and a third time to the imperial
glance. Should they be passed over on the last occasion, the
sentence of death is then commuted to transportation for life.
In the prefectoral prison at Canton I saw three malefactors
whose names had been submitted for the first time to the
emperor, and whose good fortune it liad be?n, so far, to escape

32 CHINA. [chap.

the extreme penalty of the law. The governor of the prison, who
on the occasion was standing by our side, cruelly observed in their
hearing that they might not be so fortunate the next time their
names were brought under the emperor's notice. One of the
malefactors looked thoughtful, but the others, who were evidently
desperadoes, seemed to think it a matter of the most perfect
indifference whether they were executed or sent into exile for
the period of their natural lives. They would probably have
declared themselves in favour of an ignominious death at the
hands of the common executioner. Such, however, is not the
feeling of Chinese malefactors in general.

I have observed that governors-general or governors of pro-
vinces are in certain cases invested with the power of life and
death. I may add that before the empire became so dis-
turbed by anarchy and rapine they were the only officials to
whom such powers were delegated. Now, however, it is not
at all unusual for district rulers to hold commissions by which
they are empowered to put to death, without any reference
whatever to a higher power, all traitorous and piratical
subjects. Thus, when on a visit in 1860 to the district city
to ¥a-yuue, I learned that a few days previous to my arrival
not less than thirty rebels had been decapitated under the
warrant of the district ruler.

The mode in which trials are conducted in China is startling
to all who live in lands where trial by jury is adopted. Trials in
Chinese courts of law are conducted by torture. This is carried
to such an extent, that people at home can scarcely be expected
to sive credence to an account of the atrocities of the mandarins
in their endeavours to punish vice and to maintain virtue. As
in England, however, before the seventeenth century, torture,
although actually applied by the adndnistrators of justice, is not
the law of the land. The courts in which trials are held are
open to the general public ; but the cruelties for which they are
notorious have left them deserted by visitors, so that they are
now pracrically courts of justice with closed doors. In former
times, moreover, it was usual, on the day of commission, to affix
on the outer gates of the yamun a calendar or list of the cases
to be tried, and of the prisoners' names. This custom has long

n.] COURTS OF JUSTICE. 33

been disused, and the calendar is now placed on a pillar in one
of the inner courts of the yamun, where of course there is no
chance of its attracting public attention. The judge when con-
ducting a trial sits behind a large table, which is covered with
a red cloth. The prisoner is made to kneel in front of the table
as a mark of respect to the court, by whom he is regarded as
guilty until he is proved to be innocent. The secretaries, inter-
preters, and tui-nkeys stand at each end of the table, no one
being allowed to sit but the judge. At the commencement of
the trial, the charge is, as in an English court of justice, read
aloud in the hearing of the prisoner, who is called upon to plead
either guilty or not guilty. As it is a rare thing for Chinese
prisoners — mercy being conspicuously absent in the character
of their judges — to plead guilty, trials are very numerous.
During the course of a trial the prisoner is asked a great many
leading questions which have a tendency to criminate him.
Should his answers be evasive, torture is at once resorted to as
the only remaining expedient.

Let me describe a few of the simplest modes of torture. The
upper portion of the body of the culprit having been uncovered,
each of his arms — he being in a kneeling posture — is held tightly
by a turnkey, while a third beats him most unmercifully be-
tween the shoulders with a double cane. Should he continue to
give evasive answers, his jaws are beaten with an instrument
made of two thick pieces of leather, sewn together at one end,
and in shape not unlike the sole of a slipper. Between these
pieces of leather is placed a small tongue of the same material,
to give the weapon elasticity. The force with which this im-
plement of torture is applied to the jaws of the accused is
in some instances so great as to loosen his teeth, and cause
his mouth to swell to such a degree as to deprive him for
some time of the pow^ers of mastication. Should he continue
to maintain his innocence, a turnkey beats his ankles by
means of a piece of hard wood, which resembles a school-
boy's ruler, and is more than a foot long. Torture of this
nature not unfrequently results in the ankle bones being
broken. Should the prisoner still persist in declaring his inno-
cence, a severer mode of torture is practised. This may be

VOT,. T. D

34 CHINA. [chap.

regarded as a species of rack. A large heavy tressel is placed
in a perpendicular position, and the prisoner, who is in a kneel-
ing posture, is made to lean against the board of it. His
arms are then pushed backwards and stretched under the
upper legs of the tressel, from the ends of which they are
suspended by cords passing round the thumb of each hand.
His legs are also pushed backwards, and are drawn, his knees
still resting on the ground, towards the upper legs of the
tressel by cords passing round the large toe of each foot.
When the prisoner has been thus bound, the (|uestions are
again put to him, and should his answers be deemed un-
satisfactory, the double cane is applied with great severity
to his thighs, which have been previously uncovered. I have
known prisoners remain in this position for a considerable
time, and the quivering motion of the whole frame, the
piteous moans, and the saliva oozing freely from the mouth,
afibrded the most incontestable evidence of the extremity of
the torture. Upon being released from the rack, they are
utterly unable to stand. They are therefore placed in baskets
and borne by coolies from the court of justice, falsely so-called,
to the house of detention on remand. In the course of a few
days they are once more dragged out to undergo another ex-
amination. Even this torture occasionally fails in extorting
a confession of guilt. In all such cases another still crueller
torture is enforced. The prisoner is made to kneel under a
bar of wood, six Engbsh feet in length, and is supported by
two upright pillars or posts of the same material. When the
back of his neck has been placed immediately under it, his
arms are extended along the bar, and made fast by cords. In
the hollow at the back of his knee joints is laid a second bar
of equal dimensions, and upon this two men place themselves,
one at each end, pressing it down by their weight upon the
joints of the prisoner's knees, between which and the ground
chains are sometimes passed to render the agony less endurable.
This bar is occasionally removed from the inner part of the
prisoner's knee joints, in order that it may be made to rest on
the tendo Achillis. When in this latter position, the same
amount of pressure is applied to it, with the view of stretching

11.] THE USE OF TORTURE. 35

the ankle joints. I have twice witnessed this mode of torturing
a culprit, and its severity on both occasions was painfully
evident.

But where are the witnesses ? exclaims my reader. It would
be wrong to say that no witnesses are examined in a Chinese
court of justice. It is occasionally possible to see witnesses
under examination before these dark tribunals. But as witnesses
are also in some instances subjected to torture, it is a matter of
no ordinary difficulty for a foreigner who is ignorant of Chinese,
to distinguish which of the two unfortunate men kneeling before
the judgment seat and receiving castigation is the prisoner, and
which is the witness. I remember seeing on one occasion two
men kneeling before the tribunal of the ruler of the Namhoi
district of Canton. Both of them had chains around their necks,
and as they were both occasionally beaten between the shoulders
with a double cane, I very naturally concluded at first that they
were companions in crime. One of them, however, as it turned
out, was suspected of having a perfect knowledge of the guilt of
the other, who was upon his trial ; and the witness, who was
very unwilling to give evidence, received a castigation. In a
case of murder which was tried, in 1860, in the same court, two
men, father and son, named Kan Wye and Kan Tai-chu, M^ere
called upon to bear testimony against the prisoner at the bar.
They persistently declared that they were altogether ignorant of
the circumstances of the case. This ignorance was regarded by
the court as feigned, and they were accordingly beaten and
detained in custody. The relatives of these unfortunate wit-
nesses called at my house, and earnestly irrtreated me to ask
the Allied Commissioners, for the city of Canton was then in
possession of the English and French troops, to obtain the
freedom of Kan Wye and his son. Having heard their statement,
I promised to interest myself in the matter. The Allied Com-
missioners, to whose notice I submitted the case, rendered all
the assistance in their power, but without success. The governor-
general, to whom they referred the matter, most positively
affirmed that it was in the power of the two witnesses to
give evidence of a very decided nature in the case. The father
and son were frequently examined after tin's, and on each

D 2

36 CHINA. [chap.

occasion they were severely beaten for tlie tardy manner in which
they gave their evidence. This harsh treatment proved, after a
few months, more than the son could endure, and he died in
the prison. The relatives of the surviving prisoner, who had
attained the ripe age of seventy years, fearing of course that
if his detention in jail were much longer continued he also
would die in prison, urged me to ask the Allied Commissioners
to intercede once more for his liberation. Mr. Commissioner
Pownall was on the occasion of my second appeal most kind,
and requested me to go to the yamun of the magistrate of
Pun-yu in order to confer on the matter with that official in
person. On my arrival at the yamun, I w^as told that the chief
magistrate had gone from home, and that the hour of his return
was very uncertain. I entered the prison, however, and had au
interview with the old man. Upon approaching him I was not
a little distressed to see that his mouth was much swollen in
consequence of severe blows which had been inflicted on the
preceding day. So swollen were his lips, gums, and tongue,
that it was with great difficulty he held a conversation with the
interpreter who accompanied me. On the following day another
application was made by the Allied Commissioners to the
viceroy for the liberation of the old man. It also was without
success, and in the course of a few weeks from the time of my
interview with him, and a few days after he had received another
severe flogging for declaring that he was unable to give any
evidence, the old man also died in prison.

All foreigners who resided at Canton during the period
that it was in the occupation of the allies, can, I am sure,
bear ample testimony to the praisew^orthy manner in which
the Allied Commissioners exerted themselves to put a stop
to the cruelties practised by the mandarins both in their
prisons and courts of law. These establishments were visited
daily by European policemen, whose duty was to report to
the Allied Commissioners whether the mandarins were re-
laxing or not in the severity of their treatment towards the
prisoners under their charge. On one occasion it happened
that the chief magistrate of the district of Pun-yu, who had
been frequently warned to abandon the practice of torture, was

II.] JUDICIAL CRUELTIES. 37

caught by the European inspectors in the very act of inflicting
a very severe punishment upon tliree prisoners, who liad at-
tempted to break out of gaol on the preceding day. He was
arrested and broiight into tlie presence of the Allied Com-
missioners, who sentenced liini to undergo an imprisonment
of forty days. The officials and gentry of Canton, indignant
that one of themselves should be degraded and punished by
foreign rulers, endeavoured to stir up the people to revolt.
The Allied Commissioners hearing of the movement, published
without delay the following excellent proclamation : —

" Frodamation hy the Allied Commissioners to the People
of Canton.

" Inhabitants of Canton, one of your magistrates wlio is
charged with the administration of the district Pun-yu, has
been arrested, and is now in confinement in the Yarnun of the
Allied Commissioners, and it would appear from the petitions
in his favour which have been presented to the Commissioners,
that you are ignorant of the causes which have led to his
punishment. ,

" In this matter the Allies have been guided by that regard
for justice which is the ruling principle of their conduct, and
as your magistrates are unwilling to inform you themselves of
the motive of the punishment inHicted on their colleague, the
Commissioners have now no hesitation in doing so, seeing that
the vigorous measures to which they have had recourse have
been adopted solely in the cause of humanity and in the
interests of the people.

" The use of torture in judicial proceedings is revolting to the
minds of all civilised people, and is also opposed to the laws of
China. As long, therefore, as the present military rule con-
tinues in Canton, the allied commanders cannot tolerate practices
that are contrary to humanity, on the part of any Chinese
officials in carrying out their system of justice, nor can they
suffer the people who, for the time, are intrusted to their pro-
tection to be subjected under their eyes to useless cruelties of
this nature.

" ^Yitll this view they have constantly prohibited the use of
torture in the native tribunals of this city, and they have
repeatedly directed the attention of the magistrate of Pun-yu
to the formal orders issued on this subject, but only to find
that these orders have as frequently been disregarded by that

38 CHLVA. [chap.

functionary. At last the patience of the Allied Commissioners
has been exhausted by a recent act of brutality, consisting of
crushing the legs of three prisoners, winch has been committed
by the Pun-yu, and they accordingly inflict on him a punish-
ment sufficiently exemplary to deter others from following his
example,

" Now that you have been made acquainted with the cause
of the arrest of the Pun-yu, you should let justice take its course.
His suspension need occasion you no anxiety, as other officers
Imve been appointed to perform his functions. Continue, there-
fore, to attend quietly to your ordinary occupations, without
making any attempt to disturb the public tranquillity by foolisli
demonstrations, which are certain to draw down on tlie heads of
tlie authors of them the most prompt and severe punishment.
Dated Canton, July 17th, 1871."

This proclamation had the desired effect. The district ruler,
however, who was so justly shorn of the dignity of his office,
refused, at the expiration of his term of imprisonment, to resume
his duties, and returned in the course of the following month
to Pekin, in search of employment in a portion of the empire
where there would be no possibility of his suffering a check at
the hands of foreign officials.

The legal process observed in civil cases is not very dissimilar
to that in the investigation of criminal cases. Should a dispute
arise between two persons with regard to the right to houses or
land, it is usual for the disputants to have recourse to arbitra-
tion. The persons called upon to arbitrate are, generally, the
principal residents or elders of the street or neighbourhood.
Should either party be dissatisfied with the decision of the
arbitrators, the matter is taken into a court of law, and comes
before the district ruler. The person taking the case into court
]ias to incur great expenses in bribing the underlings about the
yamun, to allow his petition to be submitted to the notice of
this official. The petitioner, having liberally paid these people,
is allow^ed to take up his position at the folding doors of one of
the inner courts of the yamun, and, as the district ruler passes
in or out, he falls upon his knees immediately in front of the
ruler's sedan chair. The magistrate calls upon his chair-bearers
to stoj), in order that he may ascertain the nature of the sup-
pliant's petition. When the district ruler has read the jietition.

11.] CIVIL CAUSES. 39

a day is at once appointed by him for the investigation of it. I
have seen at Canton respectable men kneeling in this servile
manner at tlie feet of the chief magistrate of Namhoi. In the
hearing of civil cases it is not unusnal for the jndge to inflict
torture. If of very great importance, the canse is appealed
to a higher tribunal. It is not, however, to the provincial
judge or chief justice that it is in the next instance submitted,
but to the provincial treasurer. From his court there is a
farther appeal to that of the governor, or governor-general of
the province. The decision of the governor or viceroy, how-
ever, is not final. An appeal can, in the next instance, be made
to the governor or governor-general of the province adjoining
that of which the disputants are natives, or in which they are
residing. From the verdict of the highest tribunal of the
neighbouring province, there is a last appeal to the emperor,
through the great council of the nation. In former times it
was in the power of persons engaged in law- suits to appeal
from the highest tribunal of their respective provinces to tlie
emperor in person. 'Now, however, it is imperative on those
who are engaged in litigation to appeal to the tribunal of the
adjoining province, before they can submit their case to the
emperor.

In all Chinese courts of law there is bribery and corruption ;
and the verdicts of the courts are much at the disposal of those
who can pay the highest sum for them. There are in Chinese
records many instances of officials, who have been bribed, seeking
to defeat the ends of justice. One of the most memorable is a
case of dispute which took place between two kinsmen, the one
belonging to the clan or family Ling, and the other to that of
Laong, who were respectively named Ling Kwei-hing, and Laong
Tin-loi. In the case in question the corrupt practices and
gross injustice of the mandarins were brought before the notice
of the emperor, and received his majesty's marked and well-
merited condemnation. Ling Kwei-hing the plaintiff, was a man
of almost unbounded wealth and influence. Like Ahab, king of
Israel, who in the midst of his riches pined so long as the vine-
yard of Naboth, the Jezreelite, was withheld from him, so Ling
Kwei-hing could not rest wutil a small estate, the property of

40 CHINA. [chap.

his relative Laong Tin-loi, slioulcl have become a portion of his
already extensive domains. He sought to gratify his covetous-
ness by claiming it as his own. The case was brought into the
courts of law at Canton, and the judges of the various courts,
who had been largely bribed, gave their verdict in favour of
Ling Kwei-hing. Laong Tin-loi, knowing that justice w^as alto-
gether on his side, and that the courts of law in which the case
had been successively heard had been influenced against him
through the plaintiff's wealth, resolved to set out on a journey to
Pekin with the view of seeking redress at the hands of His
Imperial Majesty, Yung-ching. This emperor, who, it is said,
was remarkable for his love of justice, truth, and mercy, graciously
received the suppliant. So fully satisfied Avas the emperor that
Laong Tin-loi had suffered wrong at the hands of the mandarins,
that he at once despatched an imperial commissioner named
Hung Tai-pang to re-investigate the matter. The examination
terminated in favour of Laong Tin-loi. Ling Kwei-hing, with
every member of his family, one male excepted, was put to
death. All the mandarins before whose respective tribunals the
case had been brought, were deprived of rank and dismissed
from the Imperial service. It would appear that Laong Tin-loi,
previous to leaving Canton en route to Pekin, went to the temple
in honour of Pak-Tai, situated in the Yoong-kwong street, or
the western suburb of Canton to seek the blessing and cruidincr

o o o

care of tlie god. On his return, he placed on the walls of the
temple — where it remains to this day — a votive tablet expressive
of his gratitude. The house in which Laong Tin-loi resided, and
in which several members of his family were put to death by
Ling Kwei-hing, stands in the centre of the village of Tam-
chune, and is sometimes visited as a place of interest by native
sight-seers and holiday-makers. The subject of the foregoing
narrative is the burden of a popular Chinese play which, to the
great gratification of the masses, is often performed on the
stage of the Chinese theatre.

With the view of encouraging officials in the efficient discharge
of their duties, honours of various kinds and grades are held out
to them ; and the viceroys, and governors, and other high officers
of state La^■e special instructions to submit to the notice of His

II.] MANDARINS AND THEIR REWARDS. 41

Imperial Majesty tlie names of all officers; civil and military,
serving under them and Avorthy of such honours. These are
bestowed not only upon the living, liut also upon the meritorious
dead. They are much sought after. Dresses of honour, in
texture, colour, and shape, similar to those worn by the emperor
and the other members of the imperial family, are occasionally
conferred upon officials, both civil and military, for distinguished
services ; and to receive from the emperor the imperial yellow
jacket is considered one of the highest honours. Marks of
approbation similar to this were, it would appear from the book
of Esther (vi. 8), occasionally bestowed by the ancient kings of
Persia upon their subjects. Such a distinction was conferred by
Ahasuerus upon Mordecai the Jew ; for he said, " Let the royal
apparel be brought which the king useth to wear .... and let
this apparel .... be delivered to the hand of the king's most
noble princes, that they may array the man withal whom the
king deligiiteth to honour." We gather from the book of Genesis
(xli. 42) that this custom prevailed also in Egypt. ISTor were
the Jews strangers to it, if I rightly interpret a certain episode
in the friendship of David and Jonathan (I Samuel xviii. 4.)

As I have already stated, conspicuous merits are in some
instances recognized by posthumous honours. Thus the Pekin
Gazette of November 11th, 1871, contained the following
memorial : ^ —

" Tseng- Kho-Ean, Viceroy of the two Kiangs, and Chang-Chih-
Man, Governor of Kiang-Soo, in a joint memorial humbly report
to the throne the extraordinarily meritorious conduct of the late
Chun-Choong-Yuen, Prefect of Kat-On, Prefecture in Kiang-Si,
during the time the city was attacked by the Taiping rebels, eigh-
teen years ago, in sacrificing his life to the cause of the government.
When the city was besieged by the enemy, who numbered between
50,000 and 60,000, the mandarin in question defended it with a
garrison of only 1800 men strong; yet frequent sorties were
made, in which the rebels were slaughtered in great numbers
beyond calculation. One day a breach in the wall had been
made, but the deceased took active measures to have it mended,
and while personally superintending its reconstruction, he missed
his footing, and fell from the wall, injuring his legs badly. On

^ The translation here given was published in the Hong-Kong China Mail of
December 23rd of the same vear.

42 - • ■ CHINA. [chap.

the eiglitli day of the twelfth moon in that year he "vvent out
again to attack the enemy, but was wounded in several places so
that blood trickled down to his ancles. Famine raged within
the city, and the people had to live on the flesh of dogs, and to
use fuel in lieu of candles ; yet in this time of extreme difficiilty
and misery he most indefatigably maintained his position until
the beginning of next year, when the rebels stormed the city
from all sides, having previously laid powder mines underground
to destroy the walls. Having effected an entrance at the west
gate, the rebels were bravely met by the deceased official and
iiis eldest son, when they were both killed, and their heads cut
off for exposure at the east gate. Of all the precedents on
record none could equal with the present in point of merit. The
memorialists therefore pray that authority be granted for a
memorial temple to be erected to the dedication of the deceased
official, who bravely defended an isolated city with a handful of
men against a formidable enemy, numbering several tens of
thousands strong, with no prospect of any relief from outside,
and no food for the sufferers within. The son, moreover, shared
the fate of the father, and this was an act of loyalty as well as
filial piety, which should not be compared with an ordinary case
of self-sacrifice. Therefore a temple should be erected to their
memory and to that of their followers in the noble cause."

As another example of posthumous honours I may cite the
case of one of the memorialists themselves. When the news of
the death of Tseng Kwo-fan from apoplexy, in March, 1872,
reachefl the ears of the emperor, an edict was immediately issued,
bestowing upon that departed worthy the posthumous title of
Tai-Foo (vice-tutor to the emperor), with the epitaph Wen-Chen
(correct principles of literature). This title is seldom conferred,
and during the past thousand years it has been bestowed upon
seven persons only. A public funeral was also granted to the
remains of this great man, and to defray the expense of it a sum
of three thousand taels was drawn from the imperial exchequer.
A public sacrifice, at the expense of the government, w^as offered
to the manes of the departed viceroy. By the command of the
emperor, this ceremony was conducted by Muk Tang-foo, the
Tartar general of Kiang-soo. Imperial commands were also
given that tablets bearing the names and titles of the deceased
should be placed, one in the temple in honour of " Illustrious

II.] - OFFICIAL DEGRADATION. 43

Faithful Servants," and another in that which is dedicated to
"Perfect and Virtuous Ministers of State." The decree gave
permission for the erection of temples in his lionour at
Honan, the province in which lie was born, and in Kiang-soo,
the province which, at tlie time of his death, he was so
successfully governing. The edict further gave orders that
the hereditary title of Marquis should at once be conferred upon
his eldest son, and that his successor in office be commanded to
report to the central government the names of all his surviving
children, with a view of their being appointed to posts of honour.
It added that any entry standing against his name in the official
register must at once be erased. This last provision may re-
quire explanation. In China governmental registers are kept in
which are recorded, in some the merits, and in others the
demerits of the various civil and military officials of tlie empire.
This custom, which is of great antiquity, was also practised by
other nations. In the respective books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and
Esther there are several passages which afford evidence of the
diligence shown in early ages by the Persian government, in
keeping a record of the services of its officers ; and in several
Greek writers there are also allusions to this practice.

With the view of deterring officials, civil and military, from
the commission of vice, it is also in the power of rulers of
provinces to memorialise the throne for the punishment of all
such delinquents. In a copy of the Peldn Gazette which was
published on 12th of November, 1871, I observed an imperial
edict in reply to a memorial on the part of one Lee Hung-chang,
requesting the degradation and dismissal of mandarins for
misconduct and a manifest incapacity to arrest offenders. The
edict ordered that the magistrate of Toong-ping Heen, in the
province of Chili, who had most signally failed in capturing the
perpetrators of a daring robbery, should at once be deprived of
his button, and that, should he fail within a given time to arrest
the offenders, he should be placed under arrest for examination
and punishment. It contained the imperial commands for the
immediate dismissal of one named Pui Fook-tak from the
magistracy of Nam-woh Heen. He was represented as a man
of ordinary abilities, and, although the offence prefeiTed against

44 CHINA. [CHAP.

him had not l3een substantiated, yet it was clear that he had
called into his service men of evil reputation, and had in conse-
quence lowered the dignity of his office. But promotion and
honour on the one hand, and degradation and disgrace on the
other, fail in a very lamentable manner to make the officials of
China honest men.

Although Chinese officials are perhaps as a class the most
corrupt state servants in the world, there are amongst them
men of high integrity and honour. These exceptional men are
held in much esteem by the people, who avail themselves of
every opportunity of doing them honour. During my long
residence at Canton I only met with one such worthy. He was
named Acheong, and for two years as governor ruled over the
vast province of Kwang-tung. So many and great were the
blessings which he conferred upon the people by his excellent
administration, that they actually adored him; and when he left
Canton they rose en viassc to do him honour. I had an oppor-
tunity of witnessing his departure, and the ovation which he
received from the citizens, who thronged the streets, was most
impressive. In the imposing procession which escorted him to
the place of embarkation, and which took at least twenty minutes
to pass a given point, were carried the silk umbrellas which had
been presented to him by the people, and the red boards — of
which there were probably more than three hundred — upon which
high-sounding titles had been inscribed in honour of the faith-
ful minister. The route was spanned at frequent intervals by
arches. From these banners were suspended which bore in
large letters, painted or embroidered, such sentences as " The
Friend of the People ; " " the Father of the People ; " " the
Father and Mother of the People ; " " the Bright Star of the
Province ; " " the Benefactor of the Age." Deputations awaited
his arrival at various temples, and he alighted from his chair to
exchange farewell compliments with them, and to partake of the
refreshment provided for the occasion. But the formal arrange-
ments could not speak so clearly to his popularity as the enthu-
siasm of the people. The silence generally observed when a
Chinese ruler passes through the streets was again and again
broken by hearty exclamations of " When will your Excellency

THE CANGUE.

II.] AN HONEST MANDARIN. 45

come back to us ? " At many points the crowd was so great as
to interrupt the line of march, and the state chair was frequently
in danger of being upset. It was evident that the mottoes which
were inscribed on the banners hung out on the route of this
virtuous servant of the state, faithfully interpreted the public
feelin<^.

CHAPTEPw III.

PRISONS AND PUNISHMENTS.

In tliis chapter I propose to give a description of Chinese
prisons, respecting the cruelties practised in which so much was
said and written in the early part of 1858 — the year in which
Canton was assaulted and captured by the allied armies of Great
Britain and France. When I have described these " habitations
of cruelty," I shall proceed to give an account of the various
degrees of punishment which are meted out to those who
have been convicted of breaking the laws of their country. Many
of these punishments are barbarous and cruel in the extreme. For
example, in the gaol of the city of Chin-kiang I saw a poor
wretch who for three days and three nights had not been
allowed to sit down. His wrists were bound together by a
long chain, the end of which was made fast to one of the rafters
of the roof of his cell. In some instances prisoners are tied up
by ropes which are made fast under their arms, their feet not
being allowed to touch the ground. Some of the modes of
capital punishment in China may justly be described as
examples of abominable and revolting cruelty. I need not,
however, anticipate details which it will be my unpleasant duty
to narrate in the course of this chapter ; and the facts which
I have to bring before the reader will speak for themselves.

The prisons of China consist, according to their class, of a
certain number of wards each. Thus, for example, the prisons
of the respective counties of Xamhoi and Pun-yu, in the
province of Kwang-tung, which are tirst-class county prisons,

iiiAP. III.] COUNTY PRISONS. 47

consist, besides cells in which prisoners on remand are confined,
of six large wards, in each of which are four large cells, making
in all twenty-four cells. The same arrangements may be said
to prevail in all county prisons. The walls of the various
wards abut one upon another, and form a parallelogram. Round
the outer wall of this parallelogram a paved pathway runs, upon
which the gates of the various wards open. This pathway
is flanked by a large outer wall, which constitutes the boundary
wall of the prison. The cells are of considerable dimensions.
In ea.ch ward the four cells are arranged two on a side, so as
to form the tv/o sides of a square, and resemble cattle-sheds, the
front of each being inclosed by a strong palisading of wood,
which extends from the ground to the roof They are paved
with granite, and each is furnished with a raised wooden dais,
on which the prisoners sit by day and sleep by night. They are
polluted with vermin and filth of almost every kind, and tlie
prisoners seldom or never have an opportunity afforded them
of washing their bodies, or even of dressing their hair, water
in Chinese prisons being a scarce commodity, and hair-combs
articles almost unknown. In each cell are placed large tubs
for the use of the prisoners ; and it is difficult to conceive how
human beings can breathe the stench — for the air seems notliing
else — which arises from these tubs, more particularly during
the hot season. In the centre of each ward is a small shrine in
which stands an idol of a deity called Hong-koong-chu-shou.
This god, who receives the homage of the prisoners, is supposed
to possess the power of melting into tenderness and contrition
the hard and stubborn hearts of the wayward and wicked.
The natal anniversary of this most suggestive and melancholy
mockery of deity is celebrated by the prisoners with an attempt
at feasting. The expense of the repast which is provided on
such occasions is defrayed by the governor of the gaol. This
Cerberus, however, takes very good care to repay himself by
appropriating, at intervals, portions of the small sums of money
doled out daily for the maintenance of his unwilling guests.

The approach to the prison is by a narrow passage, at the
entrance of which there is an ordinary sized door. Above this
entrance door is painted a tiger's head with large staring eyes

48 CHINA. [chap.

and widely-extended jaws. Upon entering, tlie visitor finds an
altar on which stands the figure of a tiger hewn in granite.
This image is regarded as the tutelary deity of the prison gates.
The turnkeys, with the view of propitiating it, and securing its
watchfulness, worship it morning and evening, gaolers in China
being held responsible for the safe custody of the miserable
beings who are intrusted to their care. On a visit which I paid
to the prison of the Namhoi magistrate at Canton, I saw one of
the turnkeys presenting offerings of fat pork to this stone tiger,
before which he was also burning incense and making genu-
flexions. At the base of the large wall which I have described
as forming the prison boundary, there are several hovels — for
by no other name can they be designated — in 'some of which
all the female felons are lodged, and in others whole families,
who have been seized and detained as hostages by the
mandarins. There is a law which admits of the seizure and
detention as hostages of families, members of which, having
broken the laws of the empire, have fled from justice. Such
hostages are not liberated until the offending relatives have been
secured, and consequently they are not unfrequently imprisoned
during a period of five, ten, or twenty years. Indeed, many of
them pass the period of their natural lives in captivity. Thus
the mother, or aunt, of Hung Sow-tsuen, the leader of the
Taiping rebellion, died, after an imprisonment of several years,
in the prison of the Namhoi magistrate at Canton. During her
captivity I frequently visited the unoffending old woman, and
grievously indeed did she feel her imprisonment for no crime
or offence of her own. Should the crime of the fugitive be
a very aggravated and heinous one, such, for example, as an
attempt upon the life of the sovereign of the empire, it is not
unusual to put the immediate, although perfectly innocent,
relations of the offender to death, whilst those who are not so
nearly related to him are sent into exile. In 1803 an attempt
was made to assassinate the emperor Ka-hing. The assassin was
no sooner apprehended than he was sentenced to be put to
death by torture ; and his sons, who were in the happy days
of childhood, were put to death by strangling.

The mortality in Chinese prisons is so great that a dead-

III.] rrvISON DEAD-HOUSES. 49

house is reganlecl as a very necessary adjunct. The bodies of all
who die in prison are thrown into the dead-house, and remain
there until tlie necessary preliminaries, which are of a very
simple kind, have been arranged for their interment. In the
course of my repeated visits to the prisons of Canton ^ during a
period extending from 1858 to 1861 inclusive, I frequently saw
these receptacles full of corpses, presenting the most revolting
and disgusting appearance. Some of the unhappy men had
evidently died from the effects of severe and often repeated
floggings. Others, it was clear, had fallen victims to one or
other of the various diseases which not unfrequently prevail in
Chinese prisons, and which such dens are only too well fitted to
create and foster. In the month of March, 1859, I saw in the
dead-house attached to the prison of the Pun-yu magistrate at
Canton, five dead bodies, all with the appearance of death from
starvation — a capital punishment which Chinese rulers not
unfrequently inflict upon kidnappers and other grave oS'enders.
The opinion which I have expressed with regard to the cause of
the death of these flve men was fully supported by three or
four gentlemen who were with me, and of whom one was, by
profession, a medical practitioner. Immediately in front of the
door of the dead-house, and at the base of the outer boundary
wall of the prison, there is a small door of sufficient size to
admit of a corpse being passed through. Through the aper-
ture the corpses of all who die in prison are passed into the
adjoining street to be carried away for burial. It would be
paying too much reverence to the remains of a deceased prisoner,
to allow them to be carried through the gates of the yamuu
to which the prison is attached. Besides, if this were done,
the Chinese authorities would consider the gates of the yamuu
polluted. I may remark in passing that according to the Latin

^ Besides the two county prisons in the city of Canton there is in the Cha,-Fan
street a gaol in which prisoners from the more distant parts of the jjrovince are
confined. There are also prisons in the streets called Shii- Yin-Lee and Koo-Wa-
Lee. The former of these prisons was built in the eighth year of the reign of
the Emperor Taou-kwang ; and the latter, at an expense of six thousand three
hundred taels, was erected in the fifty-first year of the reign of Keen-lung-Wong.
In the prison of the district magistrate of Namhoi from four hundred to six
hundred prisoners, and in that of the district magistrate of Pun-yu, from two
hundred to three hundred j^risouers, are generally confined at one time.
VOL. L E

50 CHINA. [cuAP.

historian Livy, the corpses of all jDrisoners who died in the pri-
sons of ancient Kome were, in a similarly ignominious manner,
cast into the adjoining street.

In point of appearance the unfortunate inmates of Chinese
prisons are, perhaps, of all men, the most aliject and miserable.
Tlieir death-like countenances, emaciated forms, and long,
coarse, black hair, which according to prison rules they are not
allowed to shave, give them the appearance rather of demons
than of men, and strike the mind of the beholder with im-
pressions of gloom and sorrow that are not easily forgotten.
All prisoners in each ward, with only one exception, wear fetters.
The exception is the prisoner who is supposed to be more re-
spectable, and who conducts himself better than any of his
fellows in crime. He is alloM'ed the full freedom of his limbs,
and upon him, as a mark of confidence and trust, devolves the
privilege of acting as an overseer over his fellows-prisoners in the
same ward. A custom similar to this prevailed in ancient
Egypt ; for we read that the keeper of a prison in that country
committed to the charge of Joseph all the prisoners who were
in the same ward with him.

The dress worn by Chinese prisoners consists of a coat and
trowsers of a coarse, red fabric. On the back of the coat is
written in large characters the name of the prison in wdiich its
wearer is confined, so that should he escape from durance he
would at once be recognised as a runaway or prison-breaker, and
his recapture would in all probability be as speedily effected.

The imperial clemency is occasionally extended to prisoners,
especially on the accession of an emperor, or on the occasion of
his marriage, or on the completion of any of the decades of his
age or reign. Thus, an amnesty edict was published in the Peldn
Gazette of February 12tli, 1872. It began by stating that the
late emperors of China were ever merciful and kind, and that,
in respect to his love for his subjects, their successor was not
one -whit behind them. " The four last Manchu emperors," said
the edict, " had each issued a special amnesty on entering the
eleventh year of their reigns. The present emperor wishes
■to emulate this merciful example, and requests the Board of
Punishments to devise a scheme for commutin!? the offence of

III.] PRISON OFFICIALS. 51

all prisoners throughout the empire, except those of the worst
character. In the meantime let all prisoners who are suffering
for petty offences be at once liberated," For the promotion of
the comfort of prisoners, liumone persons sometimes give or
bequeath sums of money. For instance, in the tenth year of
Taou-kwang, a provincial treasurer in the province of Kwang-
tung, named Ow, gave ten thousand dollars to the salt monopoly^
the interest from which sum was to be expended annually in pro-
viding the prisoners in the principal gaol of the city of Canton
with a few creature comforts. Many of the high officials of the
province, in imitation of Treasurer Ow's example, invested other
sums, the interest of wliich was to be employed in providing
medicine, and fans in summer, and warm underclothing in
winter, for all the prisoners in the large gaols in the city.

Each prison is presided over by a governor, who has under
him a considerable number of turnkeys. Thus, each large ])rison
in Canton has a governor, twenty-four turnkeys, thirty-seven
Avatchmen, and fifteen spearmen. In a barrack beyond the doors
or gates of each prison is a resident force of ten soldiers. There
are also, according to law, a physician, five clerks, and six bearers
of firewood and water ; but whether these latter officials are
usually found in Chinese prisons I am unable to say. The
turnkeys, watchmen, spearmen, &c., from the great amount of
misery which they daily witness, must, I apjorehend, be more
casehardened than the most incorrigible of the criminals. The
policemen who are attached to the yamun are also men of vile
character, and it is unfortunately too common for them to share
the booty with the thief, and hoodwink or satisfy the magistrate.

The governor of a Chinese prison purchases his appointment
from the local government. He receives no salary from the
state although he does this. He is compelled, therefore, to re-
coup himself by exacting money from such relatives or friends
of prisoners as are in good circumstances, and anxious, natu-
rally, tliat their unhappy friends should experience as little
as possible of the sad deprivations and cruelties for which Chi-
nese prisons are so justly and so universally notorious. It was,
if I mistake not, customary at one time for governors of gaols
in Great Britain to purchase their appointments, and for services

E 2

52 CHINA. ' [CHAP.

rendered to receive from the imperial exchequer no salaries.
Like the governors of Chinese gaols to-day, they enriched them-
selves by exacting from the relatives or friends of prisoners
sums varying, I suppose, according to their means or standing.
Prisoners, of course, who were without influential friends, or
who had none at all, like thousands of criminals in Chinese
prisons to-day, remained neglected and forgotten, or died from
sheer inability to obtain even the commonest necessaries of life.
These days were brought to a close by the indefatigable labours
of the great philanthropist, John Howard, and it would, indeed,
be an unspeakable mercy to Chinese prisoners were a Chinese
Howard to appear. To each prison a granary is attached, in
which rice of the cheapest and coarsest kind is stored by the
governor. This rice is one of his perquisites, and he retails it
to the prisoners at a most remunerative price. Vegetables and
firewood for culinary purposes, both of which are daily offered
for sale to the prisoners, are supplied by him. As the govern-
ment allowance to each prisoner per diem does not exceed
twenty-five cash, the reader does not require to be told that
prisoners who are without friends are not often able to buy even
vegetables and firewood. In the prison of the Namhoi magis-
trate at Canton, I once saw a prisoner who, unable to purchase
firewood, was endeavouring to satiate the cravings of hunger by
eating unboiled rice.

The law provides that once a month each prison shall be
inspected by a government official. It is his duty to ascertain
how many prisoners have died in prison during the month, and
to make inquiries respecting the conduct of the various turnkeys^
watchmen, and spearmen employed. After each inspection this
officer is supposed to forward his report to the viceroy or
governor. Should it appear that, owing to the neglect of the
officers of the prison, two per cent, of the men under confine-
iicient have died during the course of the month, an entry, not
only against the name of the governor of the prison, but
against that of the deputy magistrate under whose jurisdiction
the prison is placed, is made in the book of faults. Should three
per cent, have died, two entries are made in tliis book ; and in
the case of the mortality reaching four per cent., both the

111.] PRISON FARE.— HOUSES OF DETENTION. 53

governor and the deputy magistrate are dismissed from oflice.
in the event of six or seven per cent, of the prisoners dying,
the ruler of the country or district to which the prison belongs
is degraded one step. Corresponding to the book of faults there
is a book of merits, in which, if the results of the inspections
are satisfactory, entries are made which secure proportionate
rewards for the officials concerned.

Besides the prisons in which convicts are confined there are
also within the precincts of the yamun houses of detention.
These are neither so large nor so strongly inclosed as the com-
mon gaols. There is, generally, in such houses of detention a
tolerably large chamber. This is set apart for the reception of pri-
soners on remand who have friends able and willing to satisfy the
demands of the governor. By this arrangement such prisoners
avoid the misery of being shut up in the same ward with men,
in many instances, of the vilest character, and often covered
with tilth, or suffering from various kinds of cutaneous diseases.
The arrangement is a great advantage to the governor of the
gaol, and to all prisoners who can afford to pay for it, but a
great disadvantage to the otlier prisoners. The space required
for the convenience of prisoners who have friends to look after
their wants leaves very little room, indeed, for the reception of
the great majority of the poor prisoners. They are huddled
together in a common ward, sometimes so crowded that its
inmates find it difficult to lie down in it. In the streets adjoin-
ing the yamuns, there are other houses of detention, at all
events in the city of Canton. In not a few cases I have
seen these houses so densely crowded as to remind me of
the heartrending history of the Black Hole of Calcutta. I
had an opportunity of inspecting one of these "lock-ups" in the
hot month of August, 1861. It was crowded to excess ; and —
certainly not to my astonishment, for the heat was intense — all
the prisoners were in a state of complete nudity. Had as
many Europeans been incarcerated in so small a cell, they must
all have inevitably perished. The confinement of prisoners on
remand in sucii places is often much protracted, the administra-
tion of justice in China being attended with long delays.

I visited a great many Chinese prisons and lock-ups, and

fA CHINA. [riiAi'.

found them all very like each other, both as to their construction
and management. Of all the prisons, however, wliich I have
visited, that which inspired me with the most melancholy in-
terest was the prefectoral prison at Tai-wan Too, the metropolis
of Formosa. Xo fewer than one hundred and ninety-seven souls,
the crew of H.B.M.'s hired transport ship Nai'ludclha, were,
during the first war which Great Britain waged with China,
confined in this prison ; and from it they were all, with one
exception only, eventually led forth to execution. In tlie cells
which these unfortunate men are said to have occupied, I
found many Chinese prisoners who Avere endeavouring to in-
terrupt the dull monotony of their life by making fans, and I
bought specimens of their labour. On withdrawing I visited the
plot of ground — the common execution-ground — on which the
officers and crew of the Karhuddha were decapitated. Several
skulls were bleaching in the sun, and one of them, from the
very high frontal bone, appeared to be the skull of a European.
From the prisons of China let us now turn to the various
degrees of the other punishments to which Chinese convicts are
subjected. Cases of petty larceny are generally dealt with by
flogging. The culprit is handcuffed, and, with the identical
article which he stole, or one similar, suspended from his neck,
is marched through the streets of the neighbourhood in which
the theft was committed. He is preceded by a man beating a
gong, and, at each beat of the gong, an officer who walks
behind gives him a severe blow with a double rattan across the
shoulders, exclaiming, " This is the punishment due to a thief"
As the culprit has to pass through three or four streets, his
punishment, though regarded by the Chinese as one of the
minor ones, is certainly not lacking in severity. The flow of
blood is often very great. I remember the case of a thief who
had stolen a watch from one of his countrymen, and whom I
saw flogged through the Honam suburb of Canton, where I was
then rer^iding. The officer appointed to flog him was very cor-
pulent, and, from his great earnestness in the discharge of his
duty, l)ecame quite breathless before the various streets along
which the culprit was sentenced to pass had been fully traversed.
The person from whom the watch had been stolen, seeing that

III.] MINOR PUNISHMENTS. 55

the tliief might escape tlie full severity of his penalty, snatched
the double rattan from the hand of the exhausted officer, and
applied it himself most niimei'cifnlly to the thief's back.
Women ^vho are convicted of tliieving, are, in some instances,
punished in this way, Occasionally a long bamboo is used in
cases of petty larceny. When this is the case, however, the
culjOTt receives his flogging in court in front of the tribunal.
He is at once denuded of his trousers, and the number of blows
vai'ies according to the nature of the larceny from ten to three
hundred. I savvaj)unishment of this kind inflicted on an aged
man, wdio at each blow groaned piteously. His sufferings
awakened no sympathy in court. It was apparently a source of
delight to the judge and his olTticers, and the face of each official
was expanded by a broad grin. The cangue, or wooden, collar,
is another mode by wdiich petty offenders in China are punished.
The form of the cangue is represented in the annexed illustration.
Caugues vary in w'eight, some being considerably larger and
heavier than others. The period for which an offender is sen-
tenced to wear the cangue varies from a fortnight to three
months. . During the whole of this time the caugue is not
removed from the neck of the prisoner either by day or by
night. Its form prev^ents the pri.soner stretching himself on the
ground at full length, and, to judge from the attenuated appear-
ance of prisoners who have undergone it, the punishment must
be severe to a degree. The name of the prisoner and the nature
of his offence are written on the cangue in large letters, " pour
encourager les autres." The authorities often make the offender
stand from sunrise to sunset at one of the principal gates, or in
front of one of the chief temples, or public halls of the city,
and he is regarded as an object of universal scorn and contempt.
On one occasion at Canton I sa"^ three salt merchants treated
in this way for attemjjting to smuggle salt. They were, evi-
dently, persons in a respectable position amongst their fellows,
and they apparently felt their painful and humiliating position
very keenly. Passing, in January, 181)6, through the streets of
the city of Chun-tso-sheng, in the province of Kiang-soo, I
observed twelve farmers of apparent respectability wearing the

56 CHLVA. [CHAP.

cangue at' the gates of the temple in honour of Shing-Wong.
It was the day on which the fair, or great market, was being
held, and the farmers were surrounded by a number of inquisi-
tive spectators. Their offence was either unwillingness or inability
to pay their land taxes. At the city of Woo-chang I saw three
farmers who were being punished in this way for a similar
offence.

At Soo-chow I saw an old farmer who had a cangue round
his neck, and who was bound by a chain to a stone pillar at the
entrance gate of the monastery called Pow-on Sze. He also was
suffering for a similar offence. On the same day, and in the
same city, I saw two men wearing cangues, and bound to a
stone pillar at the grand entrance to the temple of Shing Wong.
From the inscription on their cangues I learned that they had
been fighting with each other. There was a snow storm, and the
fettered pugilists, who were most thinly clad, suffered severely
from the inclemency of the weather. The old farmer, however,
had wisely provided himself with thick winter clothing, and
seemed, under the circumstances, tolerably happy. Of all the
wretched creatvires whom I ever saw undergoing this sentence,
jjerhaps the most miserable was a Cliinese } outh, who had been
made to sit, for stand he could not, in one of the principal
streets of Manka, a small commercial town in the north of the
island of Formosa. Very emaciated and begrimed with dirt,
he had the appearance of one in articulo mortis. Prisoners un-
dergoing this punishment are, in some instances, made to beg
their daily bread from door to door, in order that they may not
be a burden upon the state. At Chinkiang I saw a wretched-
looking man asking alms of all whom he met. His success as
a beggar was by no means great, for all that lie received during
the time I was in the same street with him, was a cup of tea
and a boiled land crab, which he received with apparent grati-
tude from a sympathising shopkeeper. At Soo-chow I saw
another miserable-looking being to whose neck a cangue was
fastened, begging in the streets for what his keepers refused to
give him, namely, the common necessaries of life. At Chan-
chee-kow, a city situated at the base of the great wall of China,

TIIK CANGUK.

ni.] CANGUES AND CAGES. 67

I saw a prisoner beggiiit:^ for his bread from door to door. He
had a large cliain round his neclc, and the end of it was fastened
to a strong wooden fetter, encircling the calf of his left leg.
He was, without exception, the most villanous-looking man I
ever saw. As he asked and received alms at the hands of the
members of the Mohammedan guild in the city, he was pro-
bably an unworthy follower of the prophet of Mecca. These
prisoners are obliged to return every night to their respective
prisons. I noticed in my travels through the central provinces
that cangues were placed at the gates of cities, and at the doors
of yamuns or public offices, as a warning to evil-doers.

The next mode of punishing a criminal is that of confining
liim in a cage. The cages are of different forms. One is too short
to allow the prisoner to place himself in a recumbent position,
and too low to admit of his standing. Another is a narrow cage,
not high enough to admit of the offender standing altogether
upright. To the top is attached a wooden collar or cangue, by
which the neck of the criminal, which it is made to fit, is firmly
held. Another cage resembles the former in all respects but one.
The difference consists in its being longer than its occupant, so
that whilst his neck is held fast by the wooden collar attached
to the top of the cage, the tips of his toes barely touch the floor.
Indeed, the floor, which is only a few inches from the ground, is
sometimes removed, so that the prisoner may be suspended by the
neck. This punishment almost invariably proves fatal. In
1860, a man was exposed in this manner in front of the outer
gates of the yamun of the district city of Shun-tuk or Tai-
laong. He had been convicted of plundering a tomb. At the
close of the third day, after extreme sufferings, he breathed his
last. I saw several of these cages in the prefectoral prison at
Canton. It appeared to me that this cruel punishment was
much more practised in district and prefectoral cities than in
provincial capitals. The victims are, as a rule, thieves and
robbers. They are often punished by being bound to stones by
means of long chains passed round their necks. The stones are
not large, but sufficiently heavy to inconvenience them as they
walk to and from the prison to the entrance gates of the yamun
in front of wliich they are daily exposed. These stones are

58 CHINA. [,HAP.

their inseparable companions by night and by day, throughout
the whole period of their incarceration. In some instances
they are bound to long bars of iron, and' are daily exposed to
the scorn of all the passers by. At Manka I. saw six or seven
men who were being punished in this manner.

In all cases of conspiracy and rebellion the laws of China are
especially severe. It is, however, not unusual, as a maik of
imperial clemency, to punish persons who have been seduced
into rebellion by others, l)y cutting off their ears rather than
their heads, and setting them at liberty. In a tea saloon at Tat-
leng-shee, a village near Canton, at which I used to halt, I
w^as several times served with tea and cakes by a waiter one
of whose ears had been cut off. This young man, I learned,
had been induced to join the rebels who, during the years
1853-54, so greatly disturbed the peace of Kwangtung, and of
the adjoining province of Kwangsi. Having been taken in one
of the man}^ unsuccessful assaults which the rebels made on
Canton he was cast into prison, where he lay for several months.
On his trial it appeared that he was a simple unwary fellow,
and he was merely dismissed from the judgment-seat minus an
ear. AVhen travelling on on'e occasion from Ki-lung in the island
of Formosa to the coal districts in the vicinity of that town, I
observed that one of the sedan-chair bearers was without an ear.
Like the waiter in the tea saloon, he had been convicted of sedi-
tious practices. It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that
all one-eared persons in China have been guilty of sedition. I
lived on the most friendly terms with an iron merchant of the clan
or family, Foong, or Fung, who was minus his right ear. It was
a source of great sorrow to him, as strangers were disposed to
conclude from it that he had at one time been guilty of sedition.
The very contrary was the case, for the rebels had cut off the
ear of the loyal old man. They captured him at the head of a
regiment of braves whom he was leading against them. For-
tunately he prevailed upon them to spare his life.

During this rebellion the imperialist forces who had driven
the rebels from several villages in the vicinity of Canton, pro-
ceeded to cut off the ears of many of the innocent and unoffend-
ing villagers, asserting that they ought not to have allowed the

III.] PUNISrTMENT;S OF REBELS. 59

rebels to enter. In one of these villages wliicli I visited I saw
not only men, but l)oys of ten or twelve years of age who had
been treated in this brutal manner. I had my attention also
directed to a very aged man who had been cruelly scalped ;
and, upon leaving the village, a man who was following me took
me to a place beyond its precincts, where three headless human
bodies were lying. They were peasants who, for no offence
whatever, had been decapitated by the brutal soldiers. The
women were all bitterly lamenting the calamities with which
their unoffending village had been visited. Again, when the
city of Canton was recaptured in 1854, several of the insurgents
were punished for their sedition in a very singular manner.
The infuriated royalists, with the view of marking their prisoners
of war for life, cut the principal sinew of the neck of each, so
that his head inclined towards the shoulder.^

For capital and other offences of a serious nature there are
six classes of punishments. The first class is called Ling-chee.
It is inflicted upon traitors, parricides, matricides, fratricides,
and nmrderers of husbands, uncles, and tutors. The criminal is
bound to a cross, and cut either into one hundred and twenty, or
seventy-two', or thirty-six, or twenty-four pieces. Should there
be extenuating circumstances, his body, as a mark of imperial
clemency, is divided into eight portions only. The punishment
of twenty-four cuts is inflicted as follows : the first and second
cuts remove the eye-brows ; the third and fourth, the shoulders;
the fifth and sixth, the breasts ; the seventh and eighth, the

^ The cruel custom of maiming the bodies of prisoners of war was evidently
practised by the ancient Egyptians. Dr. Eicliardson describes the picture of a
liattle-field whicli, it would appear, is painted on the walls of the temple of
Medinet Habou, iu the following terms : — "The south, and part of the east wall
is covered with a battle scene, and the cruel punishment of the vanquished,
by cutting oft' their hands and maiming their bodies, is performed in the
presence of the chief, who has seated himself in repose on the back part of his
chariot to witness the execution of his horrid sentence. Three heaps of amputated
hands are counted over before him, and an equal number of scribes with scrolls
in their hands are minuting down the accouut. As many rows of prisoners stand
behind to undergo a similar mu ilation in their turn, their hands tied behind
their backs or lashed over their heads or thrust into eye-shaped manacles ; some
of their heads are twisted completely round ; some of them are turned back to
back and their arms lashed together round the elbows ; and thus they are marched
up to punishment."

60 CHINA. [chap.

parts between each hand and elbow ; the ninth and tenth, the
parts between each elbow and shoulder ; the eleventh and twelfth,
the flesh of each thigh ; the thirteenth and fonrteenth, the calf of
each leg ; the fifteenth pierces the heart ; the sixteenth severs
the head from the body ; the seventeenth and eighteenth cut off
the hands ; the nineteenth and twentieth, the arras ; the twenty-
first and twenty-second, the feet ; the twenty-third and twenty-
fourth, the legs. That of eight cuts is inflicted as follows: the
first and second cuts remove the eye-brows; the third and
fourth, the shoulders ; the fifth and sixth, the breasts ; the
seventh pierces the heart ; the eighth severs the head from the
body. A great many political offenders underwent executions
of the first class at Canton during the vice-royalty of His
Excellency Yeh. On the 14th day of December, 1864, the
famous Hakka rebel leader, Tai Chee-kwei by name, was put to
death at Canton in this manner. I most inadvertently visited
the execution-ground five minutes after the criminal had been
thus put to death by torture, and I saw the fragments of his
remains scattered over a portion of this renowned Aceldama.
His hands and feet were amongst the most conspicuous portions
of his remains.

All leaders of sedition, however, are not punished in this cruel
and unmerciful way. For example, in 1872, a man named
Soo Ying-chee, who came from the southern parts of the pro-
vince of Kwang-tung, and who for several years had proved
a source of great trouble to the government at Canton, was
simply decapitated. Soo Kee-chaong, the adopted son of Soo
Ying-chee, and a partaker of his crimes, was put to death at
the same time in a similar manner. In all probability the
imperial clemency — shown to them in regard to the mode of
their execution — was owing to the fact that they were taken
prisoners by an act of deception, the Viceroy having assured
Soo Ying-chee and his son by adoption, that he would, upon
their laying down their arms, promote them to great honour.
There is nothing surprising in the fact that Soo Ying-chee at
once listened to this proposal, as it is very common not only
for the various provincial governments, but for the central
government of the countrv, to enlist on their side powerful

THE CANT.TE.

III.] MODES OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. 01

leaders of treasonable and seditious parties by offering tliem
rank, titles, money, and a free pardon. To this policy the reader
will remember the ancient Jews, also, had recourse. Thus
David, in order to secure the services of Abner, who was uphold-
ing the cause of Ish-bosheth, the son of Saul, promised that on
the downfall of Ish-bosheth and the amalgamation of the two
kingdoms Abner should be appointed to the command of the
great army of the nation.

To resume the subject of .Chinese executions. On the nine-
teenth day of the first month of the seventh year of Tung-chee
(February 12th, 1868), a woman named Lau Laam-shi was cut
into twenty-four pieces on the common execution ground of
Canton for having poisoned her husband. She was a native of
Yung-yuen, a district or county in the prefecture of Wei-chow.
Being enamoured of a rich neighbour named Chan Asze, Avhose
second wife or concubine she hoped to become if she could get
rid of her husband, who was a peasant, she resolved to remove
the obstacle in the way of what she regarded as her advancement
in life by poison. At the time of her execution she was slightly
inebriated. When being bound to the cross upon which she
was to suffer, she begged the executioner to despatch her witli
haste. He first, very roughly, blindfolded her with a piece of
rope. She received in all twenty-four cuts, the fifteenth of
which pierced her heart. The ropes by which her arms and
neck were bound to the cross were then cut, and the upper part
of the body fell forward, the lower part remaining tightly bound
to the perpendicular beam of the cross. As the upper part fell
forward, an assistant executioner pulled the he. . d l>y

the hair to enable the executioner to sever it from the trunk.
This unfortunate woman had been two years in prison, having
committed the crime for which she suffered in the fifth year of
Tung-chee, or a.d. 1866. On the ninth day of the eleventh
month of the eighth year of the same Emperor's reign, that is,
on the 11th December, 1869, a woman named Mok Yu-shee
was similarly punished for murdering her husband. In her
crime she was assisted by her paramour, Lou San-koo, who ^^'as
also brought to justice. At her execution her guilty paramour,
so soon as she had been bound to the cross upon which she was

62 , CHINA. [chap,

to be cut into pieces, was made to kneel before her, and his head
was then at one blow severed from his body.

The second class of capital punishment, which is called Ghan
or decapitation, is the penalty due to murderers, rebels, pirates
burglars, ravishers of women, &c., &c. Prisoners wiio are sen-
tenced to decapitation are kept in ignorance of the hour fixed for
their execution until the preceding day. Sometimes they have
only a few hours' — in some instances, only a few minutes'
warning. On the 26th of September, 1872, I was present in
the gaol of the Xamhoi magistrate at Canton a few minutes
previous to twenty-two malefactors being made ready for exe-
cution. When I entered the ward in which the majority of
these men were confined, they were in perfect ignorance of
the ignominious death which they were to undergo in the course
of an hour. Xor did they know until a few minutes before
being pinioned. My Chinese servant who accompanied me very
nearly revealed to them the fact that in a few minutes they
would be led forth to execution. The foolish fellow, who had
been cautioned before we went in not to refer to the fate await-
ing the criminals, at once asked the turnkey in a rather loud
tone to point out the men who were that day to suffer. The
prisoners, who had gathered round us, were much startled, and
the turnkey pacified them by assuring them that no such event
was at hand.

When the time has arrived for making the condemned men
ready for execution, an officer in full costume, carrying in his
hand a board on which is pasted a list of the names of the
prisoners who are that day to atone for their crimes, enters the
prison, and, in the hearing of all the prisoners in the ward
assembled, read-s aloud the list of the condemned. Each prisoner
whose name is called at once answers to it, and he is then made
to sit in a basket to be carried once more into the presence of a
judge. As he is carried through the outer gate of the prison, he
is interrogated through an interpreter, by an official who acts on
the occasion as the Viceroy's representative. The questions
put to each prisoner, are very much like the following : —
What is your name ? What is your family or clan name ? Of
what district are you a native ? How long have you been con-

in.] EXECUTIONS OF THE SECOND CLASS. 63

fined in this prison ? Of what crime have you been convicted ?
When and where was your crime committed ? Had you any
accomplices, and if so what are their names ? Are you guilty ?
The representative of the viceroy, who has a list before him of
the name, surname, native place, &c., of each prisoner, compares
the answers which he receives with his list, and findinir that
they agree, he orders him to be carried to execution. As tlie
prisoners pass the outer gate of the gaol which admits them
into the court}-ard of the yamun, they encounter the gaze of an
idle crowd, who have come to see the procession of the cou-
demned. As a rule on these occasions they seem quite uncon-
cerned. Noticeably, they are very quiet. Sometimes, however,
they make a parade of their indifference. On one occasion — it
was in the year 1870—1 was in the courtyard of the chief
magistrate of Xamhoi when thirty-five men were brought out of
prison to be made ready for execution ; and three or four of
these, upon seeing so many people assembled, laughed outright,
Avhile one, who was evidently a wag, jocosely remarked that he
had at last attained to a position of gentility, having two servants
to carry him in a basket. When the prisoners who are to be
executed, arrive in the courtyard of the yamun to which the
prison is attached, their friends generally provide them either
Avith a few cakes, or a little soup, or with pieces of betel nut to
chew, or with wine, and a small dish of fat pork. What is most
generally given to these men by their friends, or in the absence
of their friends, by friendly turnkeys, is betel nut. The effect is
that of a narcotic. It gives the countenance a very flushed
appearance, which has led many foreigners to suppose that
Chinese malefactors are made more or less drunk by opium or
wine, before they are carried to execution. Fat pork and wine,
however, are preferred on such occasions to betel luit ; but it is
not every prisoner who has friends to procure these luxuries
for him.

It is surprising to witness the nonchalance with which many
of these prisoners partake of these viands. Others of them
may be seen smoking cigarettes with perfect calmness. Some,
however, weep in anticipation of the dreadful fate which is
immediately before them. But there is very little time either

64 CHINA. [chap.

for reflection or refreshment. The process of pinioning takes
place in the courtyard of the yanmn, and whilst the prisoners are
still sitting in their baskets, and is entered upon withoiit much
delay. Indeed the custom of giving condemned men sometliing
to eat prior to their execution is, in some cases, observed wlien
the prisoners are on the way to execution. In December, 1866,
I saw three Tartar soldiers being fed with fat pork and wine by
their respective relatives on their way to the execution -ground. As
the prisoners were pinioned, the food prepared for them had, as a
matter of necessity, to be put into their mouths by tlieir friends.
The process of pinioning the malefactors having been accom-
plished they are conveyed through the right or eastern arch of
the three-arched gateway, into the presence of the magistrate
whose judgment-seat has been removed from the court and
placed in the porch of the inner approach to his official resi-
dence. His last duty to these men consists in summoning each
into his presence, in order that a strip of bamboo, on which a
piece of paper bearing the criminal's name has been previously
pasted, may be bound to his head. This is done that when
they are conveyed through the streets of the city to the execu-
tion-ground, the citizens may note what criminals have been
led forth to execution. In March, 1860, I witnessed an execu-
tion of the second class at Canton. There were only three crimi-
nals ; one was a military mandarin, named Poon Fat-yune. He
had held a commission as colonel in the imperial army of China,
and had been accused and convicted of cowardice. While he
was commandant of the forces at Kwei-chow Foo, the city had
been assaulted and captured by rebels, and as the latter were en-
tering by the north gate,_^Poon Fat-yune, it appeared, was taking
his departure by the south gate. The other two were pirates,
and from their emaciated appearance it was evident that they
had suffered great privations in prison. The mandarin was exe-
cuted under an imperial warrant, the pirates under that of the
viceroy of the province. Tlie latter were carried to the common
execution-ground, which is beyond the city walls, in the open
baskets which are ordinarily used for this purpose at Canton.^

' At Foo-chow malefactors are conveyed to tlie place of execution in cages, and
at Pekiu in carts.

THK <AN(JUF..

HI.] EXECUTIONS AT CANTON. 65

The colonel, seated in a sedan chair, the blinds of Mliich
M'ere closely drawn, was borne to the same place by four well-
dressed bearers. The procession was headed by a company of
spearmen ; the two j^irates came next, followed by tlie colonel ;
and behind the prisoners, marched another company of soldiers,
armed, some with spears, some with swords, and others with
matchlocks. These were followed by three equerries who pre-
ceded a large sedan chair of state, in which was seated the
Wye-Yune or deputy ruler of the county Namhoi, in whose
presence, as sheriff, the execution was to take place. After
three equerries who rode behind this chair, was carried another
sedan chair of state, in which was seated an official whose duty
it was to pay adoration to the Five Genii on the occasion. In
close proximity to the place of execution, there is a small
temple in honour of these gods, and they are regarded as
having the power of preventing the spirits of decapitated
criminals being hurried by revengeful feelings into inflicting
injuries on the judge, magistrates, and others who have admin-
istered the law. In the rear of these state chairs a herald on
horseback carries in his right hand a small yellow banner bear-
ing t^vo Chinese characters implying " By Imperial decree."
Without this banner the Wye-Yune or sheriff dare not authorize
the executioner to strike the fatal blow. On arriving at the
ground, where the executioner was conspicuous by the bright
blade he carried, the spearmen filed off and arranged themselves
on each side of a table covered with red cloth. The Wye-Yune
took his seat in a chair, also covered with red cloth, in front of
the table. The pirates were unceremoniously ejected from their
baskets upon the mud with which a night of rain had covered
the ground. A large mat was spread for the more delicate
knees of the colonel, and he was supported by two of his
servants wearing Chinese livery. This last attention of his
servants was rendered necessary by the fact that tlie colonel
M-as in a state of inebriety. A large basin of intoxicating
wine called sam-chu, together with a dish of fat pork, had
been administered to him before he quitted the precincts of
the yamun. When an assistant executioner had placed the
prisoners in a kneeling position, with their heads bent forward
VOL. I. F

66 CHINA. [CHAP.

— for in China they do not use the block-r-the Wye-Yune, who
was still seated at the table, ordered the executioner, through a
herald, to deal the fatal strokes. In less than twelve seconds
the unhappy men were standing in the presence of that God of
whose might, majesty, holiness, justice, and mercy, they had
lived and died in a state of ignorance. One of the servants of
the colonel immediately placed lighted tapers on the ground near
the feet of the headless corpse of his master, whilst the other
burned gold and silver paper, supposed to represent money, to
supply the wants of the departed soul in the world of spirits.
At the close of these religious ceremonies, they proceeded to
WTap the headless trunk in the large mat upon which he had
knelt to receive the fatal blow. A coffin w^as then brought, in
which his remains were conveyed to the residence of his family.^
The headless corpses of the pirates lay, uncared for, where they
fell. The two bodies were eventually pressed into one shell,
and removed by the Ng-Sock, members of a pariah class, for
interment in the cemetery of malefactors. This cemetery is
termed the pit for the bones of ten thousand men. The weapon
of the executioner w^as shaped like a scimitar, and must have
had an exceedingly sharp edge, for the malefactors fell l)efore
it like blades of grass before the sc}i;he of the mower.

As a rule, malefactors are very patient and submissive when
being placed in line for execution. When a large number, say
thirty, are executed together, they are ranged in rows of four or
five, and several executioners are employed. Sometimes the
prisoners are violent and abusive. A scene occurred in 1865,
(28rd January), in which a prisoner — one of fifteen who were
being executed at Canton — addressed the executioner as follows:
• — " A man who is beheaded can only come to earth again to fill
the low^est and vilest office, namely, that of an executioner. And
an executioner cannot fail to die an ignominious death. You may
therefore expect my return to earth again, and in about eighteen
years' time I shall probably not only fill your contemptible office,
but at the same time cut off your head." A curious scene

^ For the privilege of K-moviDg ILe body the friends of the colonel would
probably have to pay a snm of money to the executioners. A case came under
my notice in which the friends of a Chinese Mohammedan who was executed for
theft paid the executioners ten dollars for this privilege.

in.] EXECUTIONS AT CANTON. 67

occurred in the following year, 18GG (June 8tli), when sixteen
men were executed. One of them had a very fierce altercation
v/ith a deputy executioner, in the course of which some very
strong Chinese expletives were freely exchanged. The cause of
this quarrel was because the malefactor would not bend his neck.
He said that his neck was long, and that it presented a target
which no skilful swordsman could possibly miss. The chief
executioner endeavoured to persuade the obstinate malefactor
that he was not an enemy, but a friend ; and that it was not by
his decree, but by that of the emperor that he was in his present
painful position. He added that he was desirous of inflicting as
little pain as possible, and that, if the criminal would only
consent to bend his neck, his head would be severed from his
body by a single blow. These arguments had their weight, and
the malefactor consented to do as he was bid.

The late M. A. Correa, Esq., who was the Canton correspond-
ent of the Hongkong China Mail, describes an extraordinary
scene which took place in 1869, when twenty-eight criminals
were executed at Canton. They commenced shouting at the top
of their voices, " Preserve life ! preserve life ! " and — " two of
them, in . the last line, who were already kneeling to receive
their fate, suddenly sprang to their feet, and though they were
manacled, the strength of four or five soldiers — in attendance
with others upon the presiding magistrate — failed to place them
in their former position. The executioner becoming somewhat
excited, and evidently thinking there was no time to lose, gave
them the coup dc grdce while they were standing. No sooner was
this bloody act brought to a close, than the sheriff with sword
and mace-bearers, and a lot of ragged attendants, left the scene.
At this moment, a number of the populace came upon the
ground, and gazed on the headless bodies of their countrymen
with the most perfect apathy and indifference."

It is not unusual to expose the heads of malefactors as a
warning to others. On the public execution-ground at Canton,
there w^as formerly a receptacle for this purpose. It w^as
removed several years ago, and the heads are now cast into
coarse earthenware tubs containing quicklime. It is very com-
mon to expose those of burglars and pirates in the immediate

r 2

68 CHINA. . [chap.

viciuity of the scenes of their crimes, and I have seen the
heads of pirates exposed in cages, attached to the tops of long
poles, by the sea-shore at ]\Iacao ; and in many of the towns and
villages in the neighbourhood of Canton, I have seen the heads
of burglars bleaching under the burning rays of a tropical sun.
At the town of Chung-lok-tam, which is in the province of
Kwang-tung, at a distance of thirty English miles from its
capital, I saw, in 1861, upwards of thirty heads of burglars,
which were hanging in cages in close proximity to the market-
place. On the banks of the Toon-ting lake, and at Ecliing, a
city on the river Yang-tsze, I saw heads exposed in this way.
On the banks of the Grand Canal I saw a head suspended from
a monumental arch, and another, for want of a better elevation,
placed on a tomb. On entering the city of :N"ankin, I noticed
the head of a man suspended by the tail from the branch of a
tree. This criminal had murdered a woman. When travelling
on the plains of Inner Mongolia in 1865, similar sights met my
eye on three or four occasions.

I have stated that all traitors, parricides, matricides, fratricides,
murderers, burglars, pirates, liighway robbers, &c , &c., suffer
either the first or the second class of punishment. An ex-
ception is made in favour of criminals who are upwards of
eighty, and of those under sixteen years of age. At present, for
example, in the prison of the cliief magistrate of the Namhoi
district, at Canton, there is a youth named Chu Chan-mang,
who, in 1861, poisoned his schoolmaster in the neighbour-
ing town of Fat-shan. A lingering death would certainly have
been his fate, had he not been under sixteen years of age.
The probability is that he will have to spend his days in
a Chinese prison.

The third class of punishment is called Nam-kow, or death
by strangulation. This is inflicted on kidnappers, and all
thieves who, with violence, steal articles the value of which
amounts to five hundred dollars and upw^ards. The manner
in wdiich this form of capital punishment is inflicted, is as
follows:— A cross is erected in the centre of the execution
ground, at the foot of wdiich a stone is placed, and upon this
the prisoner stands. His body is made fast to the perpendicular

III.] TRANSPOHTATKJN. 69

beam of the cross by a baud passing round the waist, whilst his
arms are bound to tlie transverse beam. The executioner then
places round the neck of the prisoner a thin but strong piece of
twine, which he tightens to the greatest extent and tics in a
firm knot round the upper part of the perpendicular beam.
Death by this cruel process is very slow, and is ap})arently
attended with extreme agony. The body remains on the cross
during a period of twenty-four hours,, the sheriff, Ijefore leaving
the execution ground, taking care to attach his seal to the knot
of the twine which passes round the neclc (if the malefactor. In
the years 1SGG-G7, many persons convicted of kidnapping coolies
were put to death at Canton by strangulation. In the month of
December of the former year, I saw a group of three kidnappers
who were suspended in this way from crosses. The crosses
were placed in a row, at a distance of a few feet only from one
another. At the top of each cross, and immediately above the
head of the malefactor, was a strip of paper setting forth his
name and offence.

The fourth class of punishment is called ]\Ian-kwan, or
transportation for life. The criminals who are thus punished,
are embezzlers, forgers, &c., &c. The places of banishment in the
north of China and Tartary are named respectively Hack-looiig-
kong, Elee, Xing-koo-tap, and Oloo-muk-tsze. To one of these
places all convicts from the midland and southern provinces are
sent. The labour of the unhappy men varies in a great measure
according to their former outward circumstances of life. Those
who are of a robust nature and who have been accustomed to agri-
cultural pursuits, are daily occupied in reclaiming and cultivating
waste lands. Others, more especially those who have been sent
from the southern provinces, where the heat in summer is
almost tropical, are in consequence of the severity of the
cold which prevails in northern latitudes, made to work in
government iron foundries. The aged, and those who have not
been accustomed to manual labour, are daily employed in sweep-
ing the state temples and other public buildings. , One of the
old hong merchants of Canton, who had been transported to
one of these northern settlements for bankruptcy — probably
fraudulent — was, in consideration of his age and former position,

70 CHINA. [CHAP.

set to sweep the courtyards of a state temple. Convicts who have
held official rank have to labour, some in the imperial gardens
and others in the imperial stables, which are at the respective
northern cities of Jehole and Yit-hoi. Certain convicts have
their names and crimes tattooed on their cheeks, not only in the
language of China, but in that also of Mantchuria. In some
instances a convict from China proper is conveyed beyond the
Great Wall of China and discharged, with an assurance that
his life will be forfeit should he ever return. When travel-
ling in Mongolia, I met a Chinese youth who asked alms
of me in the Canton dialect, A native of the district city of
Sam-sui, which is situated at a distance of thirty English miles
from the city of Canton, he had been transported for some
offence into the wilds of Mongolia, and his sorrowful condition
made me wish that I could have taken him back to Canton as
one of my attendants. In some portions of the empire convicts
are sent out from prison each morning to beg their daily bread.
At the small market town of Yim-poo, which is in the vicinity
of Canton, a convict from Nankin used to find employment
either as a porter, or a sedan-chair bearer, or as a farm labourer.
Every night he returned to the yamun, where he was a prisoner ;
and in this way, he told me, he had spent twenty years of his
life. He w^as very anxious to be permitted to return to Xankin
to die there, so as to receive the sacred rites of ancestral worship
from his posterity. If these day ticket-of-leave men are found
to abuse their partial liberty by extorting money from shop-
keepers, stealing, and other lawless acts, they are sent back into
confinement.

The fifth class of punishment is termed INIan-low, or
transportation for ten or fifteen years. The criminals of this
class are petty burglars, persons who harbour those who have
broken the laws, &c., &c. Such offenders are generally sent to
the midland provinces of the empire, w^here the arrangements
for convict labour are similar to those of the penal settlements
of the north. Convicts of this class, who are natives of the
midland provinces, are sent eitlier to the eastern, or western, or
southern provinces of the empire. The barbarous practice of
tattooing the cheeks is also resorted to with these. I have seen

■JHACKLKD AND MAXAf'I.ED.

in.] PENAL SETTLEMENTS. 71

many so tattooed in the prisons of Canton. The sixth class is
called Man-tow, or transportation for three years. A punish-
ment of this nature is the portion of whoremongers, gamblers,
salt smugglers, &c,, &c. A convict of this class is transported
to one of the provinces immediately bordering upon that of
which he is a native, or in which his crime w^as committed.

Convicts are removed to the penal settlements in large num-
bers at a tilne. They are made to travel sixteen English miles
per diem. The journey when possible is performed by water,
otherwise the convicts are generally obliged to walk. When
on the march, the convicts are bound together in companies
varying from two to five each. The chains or ropes by which
they are bound, pass round their necks. Their feet are also
fettered, and their arms bound in various ways. The ancient
Egyptians were accustomed to bind their prisoners in a similar
manner. In the illustrations which may be traced in the
ancient sculptures of that country, we occasionally see long
trains of prisoners being conducted in procession. In some
instances they are represented as bound together in companies
of two, or three, or four, or five each. To the custom of shackling
prisoners we find many references in the sacred scriptures. Such
a practice is, at all events, clearly set forth in the following
passages — 2 Chron. xxxiii. 11 ; Ps. ii. 3; Ps. cxlix. 8. In some
instances they are conveyed to their destination in waggons.
"When leaving Jehole in Inner Mongolia, I observed a large
tilted waggon, full of convicts, entering the city. When the
journey is performed on foot, many, especially of the ageil and
infirm, die by the way in consequence, I suppose, of bad nourish-
ment and over-fatigue. Female convicts in particular are
unable to stand these journeys, especially such as have small or
contracted feet.

Before closing this chapter, it remains for me to notice a mode
of summary execution sometimes resorted to by the elders of a
district. It consists in casting an offender, bound hand and
foot, into the nearest river or pond. It is only legal when the
death warrant under which the prisoner suffers, bears the signa-
tures, if not of all, at least of a certain numl)er of the elders of
his village. The crimes which evoke s-uch speedy justice are

72 CHINA. [chap.

various. Thus on a Sunday morning in the year 1859, whilst
on my way to church, I observed a large and excited crowd
approaching the banks of the Canton river. They were taking
two men to the river to drown them. They cast them into the
current bound hand and foot. These wretched men, I after-
wards learned, had either kidnapped or decoyed several of their
fellow-countrymen on board a foreign vessel, by which they
were conveyed as bondmen to the colonial possession of a
European kingdom. Again, in the afternoon of the 1st of
August, 1868, two men, who were also accused and convicted of
kidnapping their countrymen, were, at the command of the elders,
bound hand and foot together, and cast into the creek which
skirts, on the north side, the foreign settlement of Shameen. There
can, I think be no doubt that the drowning of these men was
carried out in the immediate vicinity of the foreign settlement
and in presence of two or three members of the foreign com-
munity, to point out to foreigners the inevitable fate of all
Chinese engaged by them to kidnap coolies for bond-ser-
vice either in the West Indian possessions of Great Britain, or
in the countries of Xorth and South America. The drowning
of these men was, I may add, at no very great distance from
the doors of the private residence of the British West Indian
Emigration Agent.

During the Canton rebellion of 1854-55, many of the rebels
were put to death in this way by the elders of the villages to
which they respectively belonged. Indeed, on one occasion, in
the year 1854, not less than fifteen men were drowned at
Honam, Canton. These men were flung one morning at eight
o'clock into that portion of the Canton river which flows past
the plot of ground where the English and other foreign resi-
dences then stood. In some instances, however, rebels were not
put to death by drowning, but were permitted by the elders —
their own clansmen in many instances — to choose such forms
of death as were least obnoxious to them. Thus at Si-chu, in
the district of Namhoi, and at various villages in the neigh-
bouring district of Shun-tuk many seditious persons terminated
their lives, some by opium, some by a cup of poison which the
Chinese call Tai-soee-yok, others l^y a poison called Woo-mun-

111.] SUMMARY EXECUTIONS. 73

kaong ; some by strangulation. These unfoitunale offonders
preferred capital punishment at the hands of the elders of their
respective villages, and in the presence of their families, to fall-
ing into the hands of the mandarins by wliom they ^yould have
been first tortured, and then decapitated. In one instance which
came under my own notice a M^oman named Mak Shee, wdio
resided in the vilhnge of Laong-hoo, wliich is in the vicinity
of tlie market-town of Sinnam, so reviled tlie elders of the
village in question for putting lier husband, whom they had
found guilty of sedition, to death — calling upon them, now that
they had taken away the support of her life, to supply her and
her children with bread — that eventually they ordered her to be
bound hand and foot and cast into the waters of a neighbouring
river. When visiting the silk districts of Kwang-tung in 1862, I
learned on reaching the market-town of Koon-shan, that, only a
few days before, the gentry and elders had ordered twenty-one
men who had attacked and captured two large cai-go boats
heavily laden with silk, to be put to death by drowning. These
unfortunate wretches were, it appeared, all bound together before
they were plunged into the stream.

Although the penal code of China is extremely severe,
especially in cases which touch the safety and stability of
the throne, or the peace of the empire, it has many very
humane traits. Thus it is in accordance with the tenor of
the laws for a judge to grant a free pardon to an only son
who has been sentenced to undergo transportation for a
definite or indefinite period of time. This pardon is, of course,
granted to the delinquent for the sake of his parents. Again,
should three brothers, the only sons of their parents, com-
bine in committing a crime deserving of decapitation or trans-
portation, the two youngest would on conviction be punished
according to law, whilst the first-born would be pardoned, though
equally guilty. Should a father be transported, the law allows
his son to accompany him into exile. AVives, also, whose
husbands are convicts, are, by the same merciful consideration,
allowed to sojourn with their husbands in tlie penal settlements.
The imperial clemency is also extended to all offenders who
are idiots, or who have mutilated or crippled bodies, and are

74 CfllXA. [chap hi.

thereby rendered unequal to labour. Further, the law does not
admit of convicts being sent into banishment during the first
month of the year, which is regarded as a month of rest and
indulgence to all ; nor yet during the sixth menth, as the
heat of summer is then supposed to have reached its height,
and travelling is in consequence attended with much personal
risk and inconvenience.

In this and the preceding chapter I have described much
that must have filled the reader with pain and indignation. No
one can read unmoved, of courts of justice where iniquity
and reckless cruelty prevail — of officials whose venality is a
pit in which many an innocent family has perished — of gaols
in which human beings are penned in dens of noisome filth and
squalor, with, in too many instances, barely such necessaries
as suffice to keep life in their emaciated bodies — of barbarous
punishments which recall the darkest pages of European history.
It is a very obvious reflection, but I cannot close without remark-
ing how profoundly grateful we ought to be that our heritage
has fallen to us in a land whose judges are incorrupt, and
whose laws are imbued with the spirit of that Word which
teaches rulers and people alike " to do justly, and to love mercy,
and to walk humbly with their God."

CHAPTEE IV

RELIGION.

From various passages in the writings wliicli the Chinese regard
as canonical, it may he gathered that they were at one time
favoured with a knowledge of that Being' whom to know
spiritually is life eternal, and that in Him, whom they worship
as Wang-Teen, and Avhom they speak of as Shang-Te, they
worshipped God. The Shoo-King and the She-King ascribe to
this Being the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, and im-
mutability; and the worship once rendered to Teen seems to
have been in many respects similar to that of the patriarchs
under the Old Testament dispensation. At the earliest period
when we have any accoimt of it, this primitive religion was asso-
ciated with an idolatrous worship of the spirits of departed
ancestors, and of spirits supposed to preside over the various
operations of KTature. In this corrupt development the Chinese
almost entirely lost sight of that God whom they had acknow-
ledged as the Creator of the universe and its Supreme Euler.
With this religion, which still holds its place as the national or
established religion of the land, the name of Confucius is asso-
ciated. It is to him as the compiler and editor of what have been
termed the canonical books of the Chinese, and the most illus-
trious and influential teacher of morality they have produced,
that its permanence as a distinct system and its supremacy in the
state over the religions by which it is surrounded are mainly due.
^ Confucius flourished in the latter half of the sixth century
before Christ — a century remarkable in the East for its spiritmil

76 CHINA. [ciiAP.

and intellectual activity. Among his own countrymen, Laou-tsze
tlie founder of Taovnsm, and among the Greeks, Pythagoras, were
propounding philosophical systems which in some points bear
a curious resemblance to each other. In India Buddha was
successfully promulgating his new doctrines. Tlie birth of
Confucius took place in the year 551 B.C. in Tsow, a district now
of the province of Shan-tung. The Chinese never permit a sage
to be born without such accompanimeuts, and it is said to have
been signalized by supernatural events. The more modest
account of his genealogy — for one narrative places at the head
of his pedigree the Emperor Hwang-te, who flourished more
than two thousand years before the Christian era — proves him
to have been a scion of a ducal house, and traces his descent from
a brother of Chow, the last sovereign of the Yin dynasty. Many
of his ancestors were certainly ministers and soldiers of distinc-
tion, and one of them especially was remarkable for liis humility
and his devotion to literature. His father, Shuh Leang-heih,
was a soldier of great bravery, and Confucius was the child of
his second marriage, when he was upwards of seventy years of
age. A story of his early years represents him as indicating the
bias of his mind in his play, in which he often imitated the
arrangement of sacrificial vessels, and went through ceremonial
postures. At the age of fifteen he was, he tells us, devoted to
learning. When he was nineteen he married. Shortly after he
seems to have held his first political appointment as keeper of
the stores of grain in his native principality of Loo. In the fol-
lowing year he was put in charge of the public fields and lands.
His reputation soon spread among the states into which the
kingdom was divided, and subsequently during a public career
which extended over fifty years, he received invitations from
various courts to hold offices, Avhich his self-respect — a feature
not less conspicuous in his character than his genuine humility
^ — often induced him to decline. Notwithstanding the love of
pleasure in princes, and the machinations of the courtiers by
whom he was opposed, he rendered substantial services in his
various offices; but his official influence was entirely subordinate
to that which he exercised as the recognized authority upon all
questions relating to the early hi&toiy of the empire, and as the

IV.] RELIGION.-CONFUCIANISM. 77

eloquent expounder of those great moral principles wliicli his
historical studies had convinced him should form the basis of
legislation. He luid begun early in life — in his twenty-second
year — to labour as a public teacher, and he succeeded in making
himself the centre of a very large circle of disciples, whose
devotion is a proof of his extraordinary force of character, and
of the moral excellence of his life. His reputation was such
that he is said to have had three thousand disciples. From
these he selected seventy-two, wliom he divided into four classes.
He set apart the first for the study of morals ; the second was
required to devote itself to the art of reasoning; the third to
devising the best forms of government ; and the fourth to
exercising the power of public teaching.

In his constant endeavour to promote in the mind of the
nation a reverent regard for those principles by which the great
emperors Yaou and Shun had been directed nearly two thousand
years before, Confucius devoted himself to reducing the tradi-
tions and rough records of antiquity into a perfect form, and he
succeeded before his death in compiling and editing what have
been termed the Five Canonical Books of the Chinese, that is,
the five "King" which they reverence as embodying the truth
upon the highest subjects from those whom they venerate as
holy and wise men. These books consist of: —

I. The Yih-King, or Book of Changes, a cosmological and
ethical treatise, the crude beginnings of which are ascribed to
Fuh-he, the reputed founder of Chinese civilization.

II. The Shoo-King, or Book of Historical Documents, in
which we have an account of the reigns of Yaou and Shun, and
of the dynasties of Hea and Shang, as also of many of tlie
sovereigns of Chow. The narrative frequently assumes the
form of a dialogue, and contains much of a didactic nature.

III. The She-King, or Book of Poetry, a collection of poems
to which Confucius attached great value as a means of moulding
the national character.

IV. The Le-ke, or Eecord of Kites. This is a national cere-
monial, and the Chinese consider the observance of its cere-
monies and usages to be essential to the maintenance of social
order and the promotion of virtue.

78 CHINA. [chap.

V. Cli'im Ts'ew, or Spring and Autumn, a history of his time,
and of several reigns immediately preceding it, the title being
derived from the events of every year being arranged under the
names of the seasons, two of which are named by synecdoche
for the whole four.

The first four, "King," are said to have been compiled and
edited by Confucius. In the fourth, however, there is said to
be much from later bauds. Only the fifth, " Spring and
Autumn," is an original work by the sage himself.

The four SJioos, or writings rank next to these books in the
estimation of the Chinese. In three of these, the Lun-Yu, or
Digested Conversations between Confucius and his disciples ; the
Ta Heo, or Great Learning ; and the Cliung Yung, or Doctrine of
the Mean, we have a record of his doctrines and sayings, by his
disciples. Tlie fourth of the SJioos consists of the works of Mencius,
a celebrated writer of the Confucian school, who died B.C. 317.

When death was removing him from the scene of his labours
Confucius must have felt that his efforts for his country had
been crowned with but scanty success. He died at the age of
seventy-four, leaving the land for which he had lived more
than ever the prey of the evils which he had vainly endea-
voured to extirpate. "The kings," he said on his death-bed,
" will not hearken to my doctrines. I am no longer, therefore,
of service upon earth, and it is time for me to quit it." After
his death his name was, as to the present day it continues to be,
held in the highest veneration by all classes of society.^ The
tenets of other ancient philosophical schools have been super-

^ To this statement there was one notable exception. "When, towards the close
of the third century, Che Hwangte — a manof inordinate ambition — had succeeded
in establishing the supremacy of the Tsin dynasty, he ordered the sacred books
which Confucius had written to be destroyed, in order that they might not
suggest an unfavourable comparison between his own and former reigns. This
order was tremblingly obeyed — the Yih-King alone being exempted from the
general destruction, as it was not a historical work. It was then customary, as
it is now, for the literati to commit to memory the writings of their favourite
philosophers, and as they naturally showed themselves hostile to his rule, this
Yandal completed his infamous scheme by putting more than four hundred of
them to death. Under succeeding sovereigns, however, and especially under the
auspices of the Emperor Han-ou-te, these lost works were successfully recovered
or restored.

IV.] RELIGION.— CONFU(.'IANISM. 79

seded, but those which came from tlje lips of Confucius are to-
day read, admired, and embraced by a large portion of the great
human family. Throughout the empire his works are regarded
as the standard of religious, moral, and political wisdom. It is
only by a knowledge of them that literary and political dis-
tinction can be won ; and filial piety, which after the death of
parents assumes the form of ancestral worship, must be con-
■sidered the central doctrine of his system, and regarded at
this hour as the national religion of the Chinese.

Although Confucius has sometimes been ranked with founders
of religion like Buddha and Mohammed, this is rather owing to
his labours on the "King," and to his extraordinary repu-
tation as a moral teacher, than to any claim wdiich he has
to be considered as a distinctively religious teacher. There are
(.'ertainly no grounds for supposing that he added any new
doctrine either to the metaphysical speculations or the rehgious
system of these books. In his recorded sayings, there is no
information as to his views, either on the subject of man's
creation, or of the future which awaits him beyond the grave.
On the contrary, we learn in the three Shoos — in which his
disciples have done for the Chinese sage what Boswell did for
Dr. Johnson — that his talk was not about religious questions,
but about history, poetry, and the rules of propriety, and above
all about whatever concerned the growth of social virtue in the
individual or the state. The providential government of an
overruling Providence was recognized by Confucius. He taught
that in this world the good are rewarded and the bad punished.
On one occasion, when in danger from the fury of the people of
K'wang, who mistook him for an old enemy of theirs — a tax-
gather— he made the memorable declaration : — " After the death
of King Wan, was not the cause of truth lodged here in me ?
Had Heaven wished to let this cause perish, I, a future mortal,
could not have got such a relation to that cause. So long as
Heaven does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the
people of K'wang do to me ? "

Confucius evidently attached great importance to the solemn
]niblic worship of Shang-Te, by the head of the state in person
assisted by his ministers. " By the ceremonies of the sacrifices

80 CHINA. [chap.

to heaven and earth," we find him saying to his disciples, when he
is speaking of the wisdom of the ancients, " they served God :
and by the ceremonies of the ancestral temple they sacrificed to
their ancestors. He who understands the ceremonies of the
sacrifices to heaven and earth, and the meaning of the several
sacrifices to ancestors, would find the government of a kingdom
as easy as to look into his palm." It has been sometimes repre-
sented that in their worsliip of heaven and earth, the Chinese
adore as two separate divinities, the physical firmament and the
solid globe. There is sufficient evidence, however, in their
literature that this gross view of their religion is erroneous ; and
the passage which I have just quoted show\s that in the mind of
Confucius, the object of their adoration in the worship of heaven
and earth, is the Supreme Being. Indeed in the year 1700 —
after the idolatrous elements of their religion had been at work
for nearly four thousand years — the monotheism of the Chinese
was the subject of official affirmation by the Emperor Kanghe
to Pope Alexander VII. In the edict which he then issued, he
made the singular statement tliat the " religious customs of
China are political." In the passage which we quoted from the
Doctrine of the Mean, Confucius looks at the great religious
ceremonies of the nation from a political point of view. It is
doubtless to the fact that he fell so far short of realising man's
position here as a fallen spiritual being, whose relations are
directly with a personal God, and have their issues in eternity,
that the marked absence of religious sentiment among the
Chinese at the present day is in a large measure owing. His
dim and imperfect knowledge on a subject of such vital im-
portance, cannot be a matter of surprise to us when we reflect
that, like Socrates and Plato, lie was unenlightened by that
Divine Eevelation which has disclosed to man the great end of
his creation, and enabled him to look forward to death,
not merely with submission, but with joyful anticipation and
hope.

Identifying himself with all that belonged to the intellectual
condition of liis age, Confucius virtually constituted himself the
interpreter of the national religion, but his work lay essentially
in tlie social and political world. His mind was intensely

IV.] RELIGION.— CONFUCIANISM. 81

practical. His attitude towards religion was tluit of one who
held it folly to waste, in vain attempts to light up the obscurity
in which the future of man is veiled, those energies which ought
to be strenuously devoted to discharging the duties of life. The
saint of Confucius is neither the absorbed ascetic of Buddha,
nor the contemplative recluse of Laou-tsze. He is the dignified
head of the well-ordered family; the dutiful and patriotic
citizen who seeks after righteousness in his doings and pro-
priety in his conduct, distinguished by reverence towards his
parents and towards the emperor, both of whom virtually stand
between him and God. But the " superior man " of Confucius
is not conspicuous merely for his dutifulness and reverence.
He must be possessed of sincerity, knowledge, magnanimity,
and energy ; and with all his reverence for authority, Confucius
held that a sovereign's claim to the allegiance of his subjects
might become void through his wickedness, so that his people
might be justified in dethroning him.

Although his moral system is founded on self-culture, it was
clearly from a social and political standpoint that he dealt with
man. He spent his life in promotinga reverent recognition by those
who ruled and those who were ruled, of the duties which belong
to the several relations of society. Without seeking to revolu-
tionize existing institutions, he endeavoured to open the eyes of
his countrymen to their moral significance. " There is govern-
ment," as he once put it, " when the prince is prince and the
minister is minister, when the father is father and the son is
son." He held it to be especially incumbent upon rulers that
they should be virtuous, for the effect of their example upon the
people is as that of wind upon the grass, which it bends in the
direction in which it blows. But he sought to hedge up the
path of each official, and indeed of every man in the state by a
variety of forms and ceremonies of a nature to remind him of
the duties of his position, and to strengthen in him a sense
of propriety — which in his view was of the greatest im-
portance.

The doctrine most prominent in his system is that of filial
piety. In the family he found the prototype of the state ; and
to this day the Chinese government is only to be understood

VOL. I. G

82

CHINA. [<-HAP.

through the relation which exists between a father and his son.
Tn recognition of the sanctity of fatherhood, the child reverences
the parent ; the parent the magistrate ; and the magistrate the
emperor.^ The " superior man," Confucius taught, " bends his
attention to what is radical. That being established, all right
practical courses naturally grow up. Filial piety and paternal
submission !— are they not the root of all benevolent actions ? " '^
In his scholarly and exhaustive prolegomena to his translations
of the Chinese classics. Dr. Legge relates an incident which
illustrates the strong vein of practical common sense which
distinguished the philosopher. About the year 500 B.C., while
Confucius occupied the post of Minister of Crime at the court
of Loo, a father against whom his son had been guilty of some
offence, asked for the punishment of the latter at the hands of
the law. Exercising his discretion, however, the new Minister
of Crime, from whom no doubt such a decision was little
expected, gave orders that not only the son, but the father also,
should be put in prison. The head of the Ke is said to have
remonstrated. "You are playing with me, Sir Minister of
Crime. Formerly you told me that in a state, or a family
filial duty was the first thing to be insisted upon. What
hinders you now from putting to death this unfilial son, as an
example to all ^the people ? " Whereupon Confucius replied
with a sigh, "When superiors fail in their duty, and then
proceed to put their inferiors to death, it is not right. This
father has not taught his son to be filial ; to grant his prayer
would be to murder the innocent. The manners of the
age have long been in a melancholy condition ; we cannot
expect the people not to be transgressing the laws."

As one of the fruits of the teaching of Confucius, we find
that singular prominence is still given to the doctrine of
filial piety. No one T believe can have resided in China

1 To teach the people their duties to their parents and their rulers it is provided
that the magistrates of cities and towns and the elders of villages shall, on the
first and fifteenth days of each month, read aloud in the public halls, with which
cities, towns, and even villages are provided, certain portions of the Book of
Sacred Instructions.

■ ^ The Chinese Classics, translated - into Ennjlish . By James Legge, D.D.
Confucian Analects, h.'\.ch. \\. 2

IV.] RELT(;i()N.-coNrrciANrs:\i. 83

without noting the marked respect which children pay to
their parents and guardians. Their filial piety manifests
itself not only in the ordinary duties, Init in signal instances
of self-denial. It is quite usual for sons to go to prison, and
into banishment, for offences committed by their parents. In
18G2, I found in the district city of Tsung-fa, a youth
suffering incarceration in the stead of his grandfather, who
had been committed to prison for bankruptcy. Availing itself
of this sentiment, the government seizes the parents of
offenders when it is unable to effect the capture of the
offenders themselves. I may mention the case of a Chinese
assistant or overseer on board a foreign store-ship at Kuin-
sing-moon, who hastened at once to surrender, when he heard
that his parents had been imprisoned at Canton because he
w^as suspected of having taken part with the rebels in 1854.
Of course the parents were liberated, but the son was decapi-
tated within forty-eight hours after his surrender. One of the
most striking acts of Chinese filial devotion is cutting a piece
of fiesh from the thigh or arm, in order that it may be prepared
with other ingredients as a restorative for a parent in extreme
cases of sickness. Such acts of piety are not very unusual. At
Pit-kong in the county of Shun-tuk, I was acquainted with a
youth who had cut a large piece of flesh from his arm out of
devotion to his mother, who was supposed to be suffering from
an incurable disease. He was evidently proud of the scar which
remained. At the silk town of Yung-ak in the same district
there was living, in the year 1864, an old woman of the clan or
family Ho, whose recovery from a sickness which threatened to
prove fatal was attributed to her daughter-in-law, who had cut
a piece of flesh from her arm to supply the restorative. That
such acts are encouraged by the government is evident from this
extract which we quote from the Fekin Gazette of July 5,
1870 :—

" Ma-Hsin-Yi, the Governor-General of the two Kiangs
(Kiang-man and Kiang-si), memorializes the throne to the effect
that a young girl of Kiang-ning Fu cut off two joints of one of
her fingers, and put the flesh thereof into the medicine which
her mother was taking for a disease which the physicians had

G 2

84 CHINA. [CHAP.

pronounced incurable. The traditional and orthodox Chinese
custom, for which (as the memorial says) there are numerous
precedents even in recent years, is to cut off a portion of the
flesh of the thigh. This the young girl, aged only fifteen, at first
actually attempted to do, but had not either strength or courage
to complete the operation. The governor-general indulges in
boundless laudations of this act of filial piety, which had of
course its reward in the immediate recovery of the mother. He
begs that the emperor will bestow some exemplary reward on
the child, such as the erection of a triumphal arch in the
neighbourhood to commemorate the act. By this means," he
says, " filial piety all over the world will receive encourage-
ment."

It is no exaggeration to say that to the tenacious hold which
the teaching of Confucius has enabled this doctrine — which is
the foundation of order in the state — to take upon the mind of
this people is due to a large extent its wonderful national
longevity. It is impossible not to ask how China has contrived
to outlive the nations of antiquity with which she was con-
temporary, the ruined masses or scattered fragments of whose
" Eternal Babylon," " Eternal Mneveh," and " Eternal Thebes,"
are all that remain to us of their vanished grandeur. It would
seem as if in their keeping of the fifth commandment the
Chinese had found the blessing which God has attached to its
fulfilment. To this people by whom God himself has been very
much forgotten, but by whom this law written in their
hearts, and preached with such power by one so essentially their
representative man, has been exalted and honoured. He has
granted length of days in the land wdiich He has given them.

Upon the broad basis of this doctrine of fiKal piety, Confucius
may be said to have re-established the superstructure of ances-
tral worship — a form of worship which more than any other
feature of the ancient religion of the Chinese, or of the religions
which now flourish by its side, has taken hold of the national
mind. Through the length and breadth of the land there is not
a dwelling which does not contain a shrine or altar before w^hich,
morning and evening, adoration is paid to departed ancestors ;
and at stated seasons of the year the people may be found
making pilgrimages to the tops of high hills, and to distant and

IV.] RELIGION.— CONFUCIANISM. 85

secluded vales, where, before the tombs of their ancestors, they
prostrate themselves in awe and reverence. The worship thus
paid is regarded as the continuation of the homage and rever-
ence shown them upon earth, rather than as worship rendered
to a god ; for they do not seem to consider these spirits to be
invested witli attributes Avhich render them greatly superior to
the conditions of being under which they existed in tlie flesh.
They believe that tlie happiness of tliese spirits depends in a
great measure on the worship and offerings of posterity, and
that those who are careful to render it to tliem secure the favour
of the gods. Sometimes they ascribe to the sj)irits of their
ancestors the power of exercising a providential care over them,
and of punishing them should they neglect to discharge their
religious duties. On several occasions, and at all seasons of the
year, I have seen Chinese at the tombs of their ancestors seek-
ing to obtain oracular information. The state worship which is
rendered in the Temple of Imperial Ancestors is celebrated with
the greatest solemnity and splendour, and it can only be offered,
like that wliich is paid to Teen, by the Emperor himself and
his principal mandarins.

The worship of ancestors had its natural development in the
canonization and worship of the spirits of great sages, heroes,
benefactors of mankind, such as the ancient patrons of agricul-
ture and silk-weaving, eminent statesmen, philanthropists, dis-
tinguished physicians, and niartyrs to virtue. Conspicuous
among the multitude of canonized wortliies who fill the Pan-
theon of China are Kwan-te, the god of war, Confucius himself,
" the most holy teacher of ancient times," Man-chaug, a god of
learning, Teen-how, the Queen of Heaven, and others of whom
the reader will find some account in the chapter of mytho-
logical sketches.

Parallel with their worship of the spirits of ancestors and of
deified mortals is that which they render to the Shin or spirits
whom they suppose to preside over Nature in her different
departments or operations. To sun, moon, and stars, to the
elements, to the seasons, to fertile land and waving grain, to
every high hill, to streams and rivers, to clouds, rain, wind, and
thunder, to the four seas and to the passing year, they assign

86 CHINA. [chap.

tutelary spirits whom they worship. For them the encircling
air is peopled with such beings, both good and bad. " How vast
is the influence of the Kwei-shin ! " is the language in which
Confucius speaks of them. " If you look for them you cannot
see them ; if you listen you cannot hear them ; they embody all
things; without them things cannot be. When we are com-
manded to fast, purify, and dress ourselves, in order to sacrifice
to them, all things appear full of them." Conspicuous amongst
these are the gods of tlie land and of the grain, of the sun, moon,
and stars, and Lung- Wong, the Dragon King, or Neptune of the
Chinese. The belief of the Chinese in such beings reminds one
of the ministry of angels and genii in which the ancient Persians
— from whom the Jews are said to have borrowed much of their
angel lore — had such implicit faith.

During the four thousand years over which their history
extends, the Chinese have never disgraced their religion with
the stories of illicit love which are conspicuous in the Greek
and Eoniau mythologies; and they have never fashioned an
image of that Being whom they recognize as Supreme. But
the essential monotheism of their religion has suffered from
a perpetual eclipse ; and, as if the one pura element in it were
not already sufficiently obscured by creature worship, the people
have been virtually driven into idolatry by the jealousy with
which the worship of Wang-Teen has been confined to the
emperor and his court. In the present day no very sharp lines
are drawn between the national gods of the Chinese and those
of Taouism and Buddhism, and the people are often guided in
their superstition simply by the reputation which an idol enjoys,
or the supposed efficacy of certain rites.

Another cause of the uncertainty of their monotheism is to
be found in the materialistic speculations of the school of
Confucianists who flourished in the Soong dynasty A.D. 960-
1271. These philosophers — the most prominent of whom was
Choo-foo-tsze, who died ad, 1200 — fixing upon the crude specu-
lations of the Yih-King as their point of departure, endeavoured
to explain the creation of the universe. Without explaining his
meaning, Confucius had said that the Tae-Keih or Great Ex-
treme was at the beginning of all things, and into this, as an

IV.] KELIGIUX.— CONFL'CIANISM. 87

ultimate principle, they resolved the personal God of the Shoo-
King and She-King. I need not attempt to discuss their
precise position among philosophers. It is sufficient to state
that the practical effect of their speculations was to pervert the
body of the Utcrati to materialism or atheism.

In the midst of conflicting views and systems, the Chinese
are unanimous in the reverence with which they continue to
regard Confucius ; and, as their religion is rather a body of
ceremonies than a system of doctrine, we may gather a clearer
idea of it from the worship which is paid to this deified philoso-
pher. Services are held in his honour twice a month. He is
worshipped M'ith great solemnity by all the mandarins, civil
and military, throughout the empire, in the middle months of
spring and autumn of each year. At Pekin the worship is
led by the emperor in person, and in a provincial capital by the
governor-general. For the two days preceding the ceremony
the mandarins are supposed to fast. On the eve of the solem-
nity, a bullock, and several sheep and pigs, are conducted in
procession with banners and bands of music to the temple of
Confucius, by an official attired in court costume. There the
animals are paraded before the altar, on which incense is kept
burning in honour of the occasion. When the butcher, kneeling
knife in hand before the altar, has received the command to rise
and slay the victims, they are conducted to an adjoining
slaughter-house. Their carcasses, shorn of hair and wool,^ are
afterwards conveyed to the temple, and arranged on the high
altar as expiatory sacrifices, if we may use the expression, in
honour of the great heathen philosopher. Thank-offerings, con-
sisting of flowers, fruits, and wines, in three different kinds
respectively, together with nine different kinds of silk fabrics —
all in white — are laid upon the same altar. On the succeeding
day, the emperor or the governor-general who is to act as Ponti-
fex Maximiis — Shing-Si-Koon is the term used by the Chinese —
proceeds to the temple. He is first called upon to wasli his
hands. When he has done so, and when the civil and military
officers of the district, who on such occasions Nvear court costume,
have arranged themselves in solemn order with their faces

' The blood, hair, and wool of the victims are buried in the earth.

88 CHINA. [PHAP.

turned towards the altar of the sage — the civil officers on the
east, and the military officers on the west, side of the grand
quadrangle of the temple — a master of ceremonies calls aloud
" Ying-shan," or, " Eeceive the Spirit." When he has called a
second time to those assembled — this time in the words " Ku-
ying-shan-sok " — the vocalists and musicians,^ who are supposed
to he seventy-four in number, sing and play a hymn which is
termed Chu-ping-chaong. This hymn consists of seven verses,
each of which is formed of eight lines, each line having four
characters. This portion of the service having been brought to
a close, a herald calls aloud " Shaong-lmong" — " Let the incense
arise." The governor-general then approaches by the eastern
staircase, the shrine in which the altar stands, and takes up his
position straight in front. Almost immediately behind him
stand thirty-six boys in neat uniforms, each bearing in his hand
a plume of the feathers of the Argus pheasant. There are four
other boys, two of whom bear standards, and two long rods or
wands. A herald again cries " Ying-shan " or " Eeceive the
Spirit," upon which his excellency kneels down and performs
the Kow-tow. On rising to his feet he is presented with a
burning incense stick by an attendant who stands on the east
side of him. This he raises with both hands above his head
with the same movement which a Eoman Catholic priest uses
in elevating the host. An attendant who stands on his left side
now receives the burning incense stick, and places it in a large
incense burner standing on the altar. The governor-general
again kneels before the altar and pei'forms the Kow-tow. He
is then escorted from the shrine, by the western staircase to his
position at the head of the officials who line the sides of the
quadrangle. As soon as he has taken up this position, all the
mandarins, together Mith his excellency, kneel down at the
command of a master of ceremonies, and perform the Kow-tow.

^ Although the musical part of the service devolves principally upon the
vocalists, who chant hymns of praise in honour of the sage, an orchestra is
arranged on one side of the altar, consisting of musicians attired for the occasion
in robes of state. In the hands of many of these, it is usual to place various
kinds of ancient musical instruments, but, as the use of these is unknown to
the Chinese musicians of the present day, the choral part of the service is especially
prominent.

IV.] RELIGION.— CONFUCIANISM. 89

During the rendering of this act of obeisance the minstrels chant
in honour of Confucius the hymn called " Chuk-sze," In the
number of its verses and metre, this hymn is precisely the same
as that called " Chu-ping-chaong." In the performance of the
various duties which devolve upon him in the course of the
ceremonial, the governor-general, escorted by two bedells, has to
proceed into the immediate presence of the altar, which groans
nnder expiatory and eucharistic ofterings, no fewer than nine
times, and on each occasion he presents to the tablet or idol a
certain number of the offerings. He raises each offering as it is
presented above his head. In the case of the animals such an
elevation is of course impossible, and portions only of their flesh
are elevated. At the close of the ceremony, and whilst the
governor-general is standing before the altar, a letter or prayer
to Confucius, copied by a caligraphist on a sheet of yellow paper,
is read aloud by a herald in the hearing of all present. It is
then conveyed to the spirit of the departed sage by being cast
into a sacred furnace. Offerings, both expiatory and eucharistic,
are presented on these occasions in the presence of the tablets of
the ancestors of Confucius, and of those also of his disciples.

I have said that the mandarins wear, as a mark of reverence,
their court costume. This includes the official cap. The
wearing of a cap or bonnet is universal among the people, both
in the worship of their gods and in ancestral worship. It was
the custom observed by the ancient Jews, and also by the
Romans. Virgil makes more than one allusion to it in the
jEneid. To quote one reference only —

" Quiu, ubi trausmisste steterint trans ajquora classes,
Et positis aris jam vota in littore solves ;
Purpureo velaie comas adopertus amictu :
Ne qua inter sauctos ignes in lionore deorum
Hostilis I'acies occurrat, et onmia turbet."

>KxEii), iii. 1, 432.

The reader will have noticed that the officiating mandarin is
called upon to wash his hands before entering into the presence
of the object of his adoration. The circumstance reminds one of
the lustrations of the Levitical priesthood, who were commanded
on pain of death to wash their hands in the brazen laver of the

ya CHINA. [ciiAP.

temple before they drew near to the altar of the Most High.
I cannot but add how much impressed I was on finding that the
Chinese, a people who for so many centuries have been essentially
exclusive, are accustomed to offer expiatory sacrifices. I am, of
course, aware that frequent references are made to such sacrifices
by Pagan writers both of ancient Greece and ancient Kome ;
and — to quote one reference only — the language of the poet has
no doubt been the heartfelt sentiment of many a worshipper —

" Cor, pro corde, precor, pro fibra sumite fibras ;
Hanc auimam vobis pro meliore damus. "

Ovid, Fasti, 6, 161.

The possibility, however, of my being a spectator of such sacrifi-
cial rites never occurred to me until I entered upon my duties
in the midst of this singular people, who, from generation to
generation, have preserved with remarkable fidelity the customs
of a remote past. And when I found myself actually present
on an occasion of solemn state worship in which expiatory
sacrifices were offered up, it brought vividly before my mind
scenes with which the pages of the Old Testament abound.
I can only regard the idea of such sacrificial rites among the
Chinese as a heritage — through what channels transmitted in
this case, as in the case of other pagan nations, I am at a loss to
say — of the teaching of Noah, who introduced to the post-
diluvian world a knowledge and practice of religious ceremony
which he had inherited in the first instance from his C4od-fearing
forefathers.

In honour of Confucius there is a temple in every provincial,
prefectoral, and district city tliroughout the empire. In archi-
tectural design these temples are all precisely similar. Each is
approached by a large entrance consisting of a centre and two
side gates. At either side of this triple gateway there is a
pillar bearing an inscription to remind the literati that it is
a reverential duty, becoming their station in life, to alight from
their sedan-chairs, or horses, and to walk into the courtyard of
a building so hallowed. Upon entering, the visitor finds facing
him, an artificial crescent-shaped pond spanned by a neat stone
bridge of three arches. The water is supposed to be pure, an

IV.] KELKJIOX.- CONFUCIAN LSM. Ul

etnblem of the purity of the sage luid of his doctrines. At the
eud of the courtyai-d is a covered triple gateway in red colour,
through which the votary passes into the first quadrangle.
Facing the gates at the opposite eud of the quadrangle stands
the altar in honour of Confucius ; and above it is a large red
tablet with the name of the sage in gilded letters. In some of
the temples an idol takes the place of the tablet. In my travels
through China I discovered this to be the case in several in-
stances ; and the practice, I apprehend, is not a very recent one.
In 1856 an idol of Confucius was placed by the literati in the
temple which stands in the Nandioi district of Canton. This
step met vs^ith strong opposition from many who belie^^ed that,
as Confucius was very much opposed to idols, great calamities
would befall the city. This prediction of the iconoclasts received
its fulfilment, for in KSeptember of the same year a quarrel arose
between the British consular authorities at Canton and the Vice-
roy Yell, which led to the bombardment of the city, and to a war
of three or four years' duration. During the bombardment by
the British, a shot struck and greatly damaged the pedestal on
which the figure of Confucius stands.

In close proximity to tliis altar are others in honour of
Mencius, Tsang-tsze, and other renowned authors. On the
right and left of the quadrangle there are cloisters containing
shrines, above the altars of which are the monumental tablets of
the seventy-two disciples, as well as tablets, of others who, since
the days of Confucius, have rendered themselves famous as
expounders of his doctrines. In the second quadrangle of the
temple stands a shrine in honour of the parents and grand-
parents of the sage, who receive a share of the veneration of
the people whose moral condition their gifted descendant so
zealously endeavoured to improve. To each Confucian temple
are attached the following shrines, namely, the How-tai-Tsze,
a hall in which tablets are placed bearing the names of officials
conspicuous for their fidelity, and of men renowned for their filial
piety as sons and grandsons ; the Ming-wan-Tsze, a hall con-
taining tablets bearing the names of officials who have proved
great benefactors to the districts over which they have ruled ;
the Haong-yin-Tsze, or hall with tablets bearing the names of

92 CHINA. [CHAP

native sages ; and the Tsit-liow-Tsze, or liall with tablets bear-
ing the names of virtuous women, natives of the district.
There is a liall in the prefectoral Confucian temple at Canton
termed Yee-fow-Tsze, which was built by Keying, the well-
known Chinese commissioner to Canton. It contains a tablet
with the name of one Ho Yow-shu, a man of great wealth, who
succeeded in taking the Chun-tsze degree at Pekin, The tablet
of Ho Yow-shu, however, was not placed in its present position
on account eitlier of his wealth or his learning, but in conse-
quence of his having after the death of his wife steadfastly
remained a widower. He died far advanced in years. His wife
died shortly after her marriage, being then, like her husband,
very young. I may mention an incident which may serve to
illustrate the care with which the literati confine the honour of
a place in the hall of native sages to those only who have really
been distinguished for their mental attainments. In the hall of
a temple had been placed the tablet of one Loo Mau-kum.
This man had been distinguished as chief of the Houg; mer-
chants rather than for his learning, and his tablet was an eye-
sore to the literati. After several years they petitioned the
officials of the city to remove it. They refused, and the matter
was eventually referred to the central government at Pekin, who
despatched a commissioner to Canton. This official agreeing with
the literati that the tablet was unworthy of its position, orders
were given for its removal. A cord was tied round it, and it
was dragged from the altar beyond the precincts of the temple.
The temples in honour of Confucius are often imposing. The
temple at Poo- chow and that also at Yang-chow are very note-
worthy. In the latter I was shown a large inner chamber con-
taining a great number of blocks on which, the attendant in-
formed me, were engraven the writings of Confucius, which a.re
here printed and published. At Noo-chang there is a temple
remarkable for the fact that it stands not within, as is invariably
the case elsewhere, but without the walls of the city. The in-
habitants say that within the walls there was not, according
to the opinion of the geomancers, a site sufficiently propitious
to be used for the erection of a temple in honour of one so
renowned as the immortal sage of China.

IV.]- RELIGION.— CONFUCIANISM. 93

Of all the Confucian temples, however, that which stands in
the city of Pekin is by far the most interesting. The vaulted roof
is painted blue, and is elaborately decorated ; the floor is covered
with a carpet made, I believe, of camels' hair. In the court-
yard of the temple are rows of cedar trees, which, having been
planted prior to the Ming dynasty, are now upwards of five
hundred years old. There are also ten stones shaped like drums ^
upon each of which are engraven stanzas of poetry. These
stone drums are said to have been in existence since the days of
Yaou and Shun, who flourished, the former B.C. 2357, and the
latter B.C. 2255. In a classic written a little later than the days
of Confucius, a reference is made to these stones. In consequence
of the reverence in which they are held, they have always been
kept in the royal cities in which the Emperors of China have
resided. At one time they were lodged in the city of Sie-nan
Foo, and while they were in the keeping of this city, some of
them were lost. One of the missing stones, however, was found
after the lapse of many years in a farmyard, where, having been
converted into a trough, it was used for the purpose of watering
cattle. It is, of course, defaced. As I looked at these stones
with their worn record of sacred tenets, said to have been
graven upon them more than four thousand years ago, I could
not help feeling much impressed, and there came into my mind
that portion of the inspired Word in which we read of '' the two
tables of the testimony," which " were written on both their
sides," and " were the work of God, and the writing was the
writing of God, graven upon the tables." The custom of record-
ing on stone was very generally practised in the earliest ages of
the world. It was on tables of stone, for example, that Thoth
engraved, not only the theology of Egypt, but the annals of tlie
earliest ages of that most ancient country. In Crete, there stood
at one time very ancient tables of stone, on which were engraven
descriptions of the religious ceremonies of the Corybantes. At
Athens there was formerly a column on which was engraven
what was said to have been a law of Theseus, the great legen-
dary hero of Attica. Osiris, Sesostris, Hercules, and other
heroes of antiquity are also said to have resorted to this
expedient as a means of perpetuating their deeds.

^^ CHIXA. [chap.

There are no fewer than three temples to Confucius in Canton,
namely, the one in the Namhoi district, to which I have already
referred ; one in the Pun-yu district, and one in the prefecture,
of which the two districts are integral portions. In point of
architecture and extent, they are all precisely the same. In the
grounds of the prefectoral temple there is a mons saccr, or sacred
mount, upon the summit of w4iich stands an arbour. In this
arbour is placed a Inroad, smooth, black marble slab, on which is
engraven a representation of " the most perfect sage." There is
a portrait also of Ngan-tsze, a great upholder of the doctrines of
Confucius, whose custom it was to study on this sacred mount.
The arbour is called Kow-sze, or the nine duties. It was built
in the third year, a.d. 1129, of the Emperor Kin-too.

Confucian temples are occasionally used as colleges, and as
halls in which to hold ordinary public examinations. In each
temple two officials, called Kow-Koon, are lodged in chambers on
the right and left of the principal quadrangle. All bachelors of
arts of the district in which the temple stands are undpr the
direction of these officials ; without whose sanction they cannot
be arrested. When a bachelor of arts stands at the bar of a
magistrates' court, it is usual for the Kow-Koon to occupy a seat
on the bench. In every school and college of the empire there
are tablets bearing the name of Confucius, before which daily
worship is offered by the members.

TAOUISM.

Confucianism fails lamentably in this respect — it does not
provide for the spiritual wants or desires of man's nature.
In the writings of Confucius and in the traditions of his
teaching the Chinese found a powerful incentive to national
well-doing, but there was no sustenance for that part of man's
complex nature which impels even the most barbarous races to
adopt a religion. Hence, side by side with Confucianism, which
in point of origin it slightly preceded, flourished Taouism, a
system which, while giving a speculative account of God and of
the universe, presented several points to which the religious
feelings of men attached themselves with greater readiness :

IV.] RELKJION.— TAOUISM. 95

Buddhism was introduced from India much later, in the first cen-
tury of the Christian era, and it found the people still unsatisfied
and ready to welcome it.

Although the doctrine of Taou had been recognized by philo-
sophers before Laou-tsze developed it as the central dogma of his
system, he is justly regarded as the founder of the sect which
derives its name from it. Born about the beginning of the sixth
century B.C., he lived to see Confucius, who visited him at the
court of Chow, actively engaged in his career as a public
teacher. His parents were probalily very poor, his father being
according to one account a peasant who, after remaining un-
married up to his seventieth year, married a peasant woman of
forty. Through his learning and abilities Laou-tsze succeeded
in obtaining office at the court of Chow. It is impossible to say
how many years he retained this appointment, and what was its
precise nature. It is clear, however, that his duties were in
connection with the keeping of the archives and other historical
treasures of the State. Eventually, finding that they interfere-^
with his devotion to philosophy, and influenced largely, no
doubt, by the troubled and threatening aspect of the times, Laou-
tsze sought retirement amongst the hills near his native village,
on the eastern borders of Honan, and devoted his whole time
and energies to philosophic research. In this retirement he
enjoyed leisure for the quiet reflection which is considered by
the sect as essential to advanceipent in moral excellence, and
produced his celebrated work, Taou-tih-King.

The ethical doctrines of this book, which exalt virtue as the
summum honum, are based upon its metaphysical speculations.
It is by stillness and contemplation, and by union with Taou,
that virtue is to be achieved. The word Taou means, in the first
place, a way, and then, a principle. Hence its use to signify
the ap-)(T!], or Supreme Principle of the imiverse. What we are
to understand by this principle is a question involved in great
obscurity, owing, firstly, to the difficulty in deciding whether
Laou-tsze regarded Taou in the light of a personal Being, or of
a principle antecedent to the personal deity; and, secondly,
because it is not quite clear whether he considered Taou to
be a creative power distinct from the universe, or whether he

96 CHINA. [chap.

regarded the latter as merely a pantheistic manifestation. If,
as is probable, Laou-tsze was a pantheist, he certainly held that
higher form of pantheism wliich, while necessarily confounding
to some extent the universe with its principle, assigns to the
latter " a superiority over the mass which it pervades." Taou is
immaterial and eternal, and the universe — an emanation from
this transcendent source — exists in the silent, yet ceaselessly
active omnipresence of Taou, and everywhere bears the impress
of plastic Reason. The masterpiece of creation is the holy sage
who, when he dies, returns to the bosom of Eternal Reason to
enjoy endless rest, while the wicked are condemned to prolong
a miserable existence on earth in successive lives, dying only to
be born again in some new form. The fundamental idea in the
system of Laou-tsze seems to have been unity. Carrying this
principle into the region of morals, he made virtue consist in
losing sight of self in the universe. Man, he taught, should go
through life as if nothing which he possesses were his own, and
should love all his fellow creatures, not excepting his enemies. He
urged that nothing could be compared to the happiness enjoyed
by him who had once attained to virtue, and that he, and only
he, could regard with indifference health or sickness, joy or
sorrow, wealth or indigence.

In the existing Taouism of China it is difficult to recognise the
metaphysical speculations and ethical doctrines of this remark-
able philosopher. The former are disguised in gross supersti-
tion. For the latter we have indolent indifferentism. Laou-tsze
himself, the frugal and plain-living thinker, is hardly to be re-
cognised amid the false splendours of his apotheosis. He is
now the third of a trinity of persons in whom Taou has assumed
personality, called in the writings of the sect "Shang-Tes of
mysterious nothingness," and worshipped as " The Three Pure
Ones." The Taouists assert that he left Heaven in order to
become incarnate in the sage of Chow, and they have invented
many marvels to support this statement. It appears that
Laou-tsze was eighty-one years in the womb of his mother;
that during her pregnancy she was fed daily by food from
heaven, which descended in the form of a red cloud. At his
birth he had long flowing white locks, as well as inscriptions on

XV.] KKLKilON.-TAOUrSM. 97

his hands aiul feet. 80 soon as he was born, he monnted nine
paces ill the air, and exchiimed, pointing with his left hand
to heaven, and his riglit hand to earth, " Heaven above — earth
beneath — only Taou is hononrable."

According to a very interesting article on this subject, which
appeared in the fourth number of the Chiva Bevieio, from the
pen of the I'ev. John Chalmers, Taouism passed through four
stages of development. Starting as a speculative system, it wan-
dered further and further from the confines of reality. The
representatives of the dreamij stage of Taouism are Chwang-tsze
and Leeh-tsze, both of whom, as might be expected, were very
hostile to the practical school of Confucianism. At this stage
the spirit of self-abnegation which Laou-tsze inculcated, was less
insisted on than the vanity of human pursuits and ])eliefs.
Taouism had now become wedded to fable, and spiritual beings
and their histories had come to occupy a larger place than
the doctrines they were intended to illustrate. The transition
into the adventurous stage was easy. With the regions where
the Queen of the Fairies or the AYestern lioyal Mother lived,
Taouists were quite familiar in the pages of their philosophers.
Tidings had reached them of the whereabouts of the Eastern
Eoyal Father, and it only remained to realise these dreams.

Even Confucianists yielded to the fashionable mania, and
escorted the great hero of the day, Chi Hwang-ti — the despot
who attempted to destroy the sacred books — to mountain tops
and plains where they hoped by solemn rites to establish
communications with the immortals.

When the Confucians failed, the Taouists '' had a more hopeful
scheme of reaching Fairyland by sea. An expedition was fitted
out, which was to consist of some thousands of virgins and as
many young men, headed by a Taouist magician, Sli-fuh. It
was supposed that the sight of so many human beings of virgin
purity would so charm and propitiate the immortals that their
accustomed shyness would be overcome, and they would readily
come and ally themselves to the mighty potentate of China.
Sli-fuh returned from this expedition, if in reality he ever started
on it, repoiting that lie had seen Fairyland in the distance, but
could not reach it on account of adverse winds.

"The scheme was nf)t to be abandoned, liowever. Sil-Fuh and
VOL. I. 11

98 CHINA. [chap

others had actually seen and conversed with genii, and indivi-
duals had been known to attain to immortality by eating certain
medicinal herbs. Tsin-clii Hwang-ti was therefore resolved to
try every means to obtain an interview with some of these
immortals, and to procure the medicine, whatever might be the
expense. He roamed about the country, sometimes incognito,
and sometimes in state, hoping to meet with genii. At Chi-foo
and other points on the coast he looked out on the ocean, won-
dering, it would seem, why Fairyland did not come floating on
its bosom, to do honour to him. Thousands of people were
compelled to throw themselves into the sea or into rivers, in
order to bring the spirits. But it was all in vain. At last, after
twelve years of cruel tyranny over men, and of fruitless search
for genii and immortal medicine, he was persuaded once more to
go to Chi-foo in person, to shoot sliarks, which, he was told,
were in fact a sort of malignant spirits that had all along pre-
vented the good ones from coming to him. AYith much trouble
a big fish was brought within bowshot of the Emperor, and he
killed it with many arrows. But before he reached home again he
was taken ill and died. Two years more, during which the son
outdid the father in craelty and extravagance (but not in the

quest for genii), completed this Everlasting Dynasty

In the following dynasty (the Han) more hopeful enterprises
were entered on than the search for Fairyland in the Gulf of
Shang-tung. But the fifth Emperor of the Han dynasty seventy
years after, took up the work of Chi Hwang-ti, and allowed
himself to be duped in a similar way for fifty years. He was
even bolder, or else more condescending, for he actually com-
mitted himself to the perilous deep and remained afloat for more
than ten days. There was a heavy sea on, and he returned a
sadder and a wiser man. In the last two years of his reign, in
his old age, he bitterly bemoaned his mis-spent life."

When adventurous quests had ceased to be the order of the
day, Taouism betook itself to alchemy, and sought to transmute
tlie baser metals into gold and silver, and to discover the elixir
of immortality. We hear of spiritual medicine, gemmy food,
and fountains of nectar, as well as less euphonious substances,
cinnabar, orpiment, sulphur, ochre, the spleen of the five viscera,
the five elements, the " raven in the sun," and the " liare in the
moon." The metaphysical system of Laou-tsze, which liad taken
hold of men by the power of its ethical doctrine, and the union
of the speculative and practical, became a harbour of refuge for

IV.] RELIGION. -TAOUISM. 99

every kind of superstition. Not to be outdone by their rivals,
the Buddhists, who coukl point to Shakyamuni as deity incar-
nate, the Taouist priests deified Laou-tsze, and the two sects
rivalled each other in providing gods of every kind for the
wants of the people. "Whenever popular sentiment seemed to
indicate that it was ripe for such a step, a new god was pro-
vided, either by the deification of a hero, or the personification
of a principle, or social element, sucli as wealth, war, and
longevity.

The highest regions of the heavens are supposed to be the
residences of the three persons of the Taouist trinity, who are
styled in the authorised writings of the sect ' Shang-tes of
mysterious nothingness," or " of empty nothingness ; " and the
central regions are supposed to form the abode of the gods whose
origin I have described. At the head of the deities in this
central kingdom are Yuh-hwang and Pih-te, who, in contradis-
tinction to the three Shang-tes of mysterious non-existence, are
called " Shang-tes of mysterious existence." To Yuh-hwang is
entrusted the superintendence of the world, the inhabitants of
which he instructs and punishes. Pih-te, in whose composition
there are Buddhist and Confucian as well as Taouist elements, is
a very popular deity, and some account of him will be found in
the chapter on Chinese mythologies.

The priests of the sect of Taou are very numerous, and appear
to constitute the whole of its professed disciples. They may be
recognised by their loose, flowing robes, and by the singular
manner in which they tire their long black hair. This is
gathered and bound together on the crown of the head, by a
wooden comb, the shape of which bears a striking resemblance
to the back of a tortoise. Celibacy is not imperatively neces-
sary. jMany priests, however, eschew matrimony and spend
their days in the seclusion of monasteries. The most famous of
these are the Sam-yune-koong and the Ying-yune-koong-Koon-
Yam-Shan. Other priests resort to the mountains, especially to
those of the Low-fow Shan range, and lead the lives of hermits
Avith the hope of attaining a place amongst the genii, when
called upon to quit this sublunary scene. In some of these
monasteries I found the priests engaged in the study of the

H 2

100 CHINA. [chap.

philosophical writings of Laoii-tsze. As a rule, however, very
few of them are able to understand these writings, or to give
expression to the philosophical tenets contained in them.
Instead they have had recourse to works on astrology and
alchemy, and profess to hold communication with the spirits of
the departed. These they are credited with the power of sum-
moning, and the manner is this : — Upon entering the house •
where his services are required, the priest asks the day, the
hour, and the year of the birth and death of the deceased
person with whom he is to communicate. He then places on
an altar a basin of uncooked rice, two tapers, and one uncooked
egg, and rests his head on the altar, whilst the person employing
him waves burning paper over his head. When the priest has
ciied, or made a howling noise, for the space of one hour, the
spirit is supposed to be present at his summons. Sometimes
Taouist women perform these incantations.

Besides the idols of Laou-tsze, CJiwang-tsze and other gods,
the Taouists worship the sun, and moon, and stars, supposing
them to exercise a controlling power over the destinies of men.
They pander in every possible way to the superstitions of the
people, and, creeping into their houses, especially " lead captive
silly women." The Chinese are profound believers in ghosts,
and the priests of Taou reap a rich harvest by being frequently
called upon to eject these unearthly visitants from haunted
houses. They usually erect an altar in such a house, and place
on it offerings of rice and fowl. After a few adjurations to the
spirit, calling upon it to quit the house, they break in pieces a
square tile of clay upon wliich a mystic scroll has been inscribed.
Of the efficacy of this ceremony the people appear to entertain no
doubt. As the Chinese believe that when disease does not yield
to medical treatment, the vitals of the invalid are being preyed
upon by an evil spirit, the phj'sician is often discarded, and the
exorcising powers of the priests of Taou called into requisition.
It is scarcely possible to pass along the streets of a Chinese city
at night, "without finding these priests at work. An altar is
erected in the dwelling house, upon which are placed offerings of
pork, fowl, and rice. The priests, three in number, stand round
the altar, and address a number of prayers to tlie noxious spirit,

IV.] . RELKilOX.— TAOUISM. 101

calling upon it to vacate the body of the sufferer, and to satiate
its inordinate appetite by partaking of the pork, fowl, and rice
served for it upon tlie altar. The prayers are intoned, and
accompanied by tlie discordant notes of the shrill pipe, the noisy
drum, and the clanging cymbals. Should the spirit be disinclined
to attend, intimidation is resorted to as a more effectual means.
The priests threaten to despatch a letter to the gods of the
infernal regions, calling upon tliem to recall the spirit to the
miseries of hell. Should this fail, eating fire and walking on
hot embers are tried as a last resource.

The reader may be disposed to think that tlie ignorant only
can be guilty of such absurdities. They are, however, I regret to
say, indulged in also by the learned and wealthy. When
passing along the streets of Canton on one occasion, 1 observed
in one of the principal dwellings, the large doors of which
were thrown open, a Chinese gentleman and his son, kneeling
in front of an altar which was surrounded by Taouist i^riests
engaged in chanting prayers. Having been informed that
foreigners were standing in the vestibule of tlie house, the
gentleman withdrew his attention, for a moment, from the
religious ceremony, to ascertain wdio we were. He was a Chinese
merchant of great wealth and influence with whom I was
acquainted ; and he proceeded to inform me that he was
seeking, by the prayers of the priest, the expulsion of an evil
spirit from the body of his sick child. My astonishment was
considerable, upon finding that a man of great shrewdness and
intelligence in the ordinary transactions of life should allow
himself to become such a dupe.

Similar scenes of gross extravagance may be witnessed in
their temples as well as in the dwelling-houses of the people.
"Whilst I was visiting one of these temples, a father brought
his son to the priests who were lodged in it, saying that the
child was possessed of a devil. Having consulted the idol, the
priests informed him that there were no fewer than five devils
in the body of his son, but that they were prepared to expel
them all on the payment of a certain sum. The father agreed.
The child was then placed in front of tlie altar, and on the
"round near his feet were placed five eggs, into M'hich the

102 CJIINx\. [chap.

priests adjured the devils to go. As soon as they were supposed
to have entered the eggs, the chief of the priests covered them
over with an earthenware vase, and at the same time sounded
a loud blast upon a horn. When the vase was removed, the
eggs by a trick of legerdemain were found no longer on the
ground, but in the vase. The jDriest then proceeded to uncover
his arm, and made an incision with a lancet in the fleshy part.
The blood which flowed from the wound was allowed to minsile
with a small quantity of water in a cup. The seal of the temple,
the impression of which was the name of the idol, was then
dipped into the blood and stamped upon the wrists, neck, back,
and forehead of the poor heathen child, who was suffering from
an attack of fever and ague. In several of these places of
pagan worship are to be found men who, prostrating themselves
before images of wood and stone, seek to obtain a knowledge of
the future awaiting them. The oracular information thus sought,
is conveyed by the deity in a very singular w^ay. Having knelt
before the idol and made known his desire, the votary proceeds
to a priest who is standing in front of a table covered with sand
in one of the aisles of the temple. The priest supports with the
tips of his fingers one end of a long pencil, Avhich is made to
run along the sand-covered table, descrilung in its course a
variety of characters, intelligible only to tlie priests' sect. Near
this table another is seated who translates the mystical language
into Chinese. In the autumn of 1861, I observed a very re-
spectable Chinese gentleman with whom I \\'as acquainted,
entering one of the temples of Taou. Upon inquiring for \yhat
purpose he had come there, I was told by him that he was
about to set out on a voyage to one of the more westerly
provinces of the empire, and that he was desirous of receiving
information from the idol, whether the voyage which he medi-
tated would be exempt from disaster. I followed him into the
temple and saw him kneel down in front of the idol. Having
continued for some time in prayer without uttering an audible
word, he rose to his feet and appealed to the priest, who was
standing at a table similar to the one I have just described, to
inform him of the idol's reply. The answer given was to the
effect that his intended voyage would be free from all harm and

IV.] REIJGTON— TAOUISM. 103

loss. It certainly did not seem to iiic possible that the jiriest
could have derived his iiiforinatiou as to the nature of the
gentleman's appeal, from anytliing that the latter said or did
while he was in the temple.

Candidates for the Taouist priestliood have to devote five years
to study. At the termination of their collegiate career, they
are initiated into the priesthood by a simple ceremony. This
consists of a fast of three days duration ; bathing the body in
water scented with the leaves of the orange tree; then froinointo
the presence of the idol of Tai-Shang-Laou-keun or Laou-tsze, to
seek the blessing of that deity. The priests receive a license to
perform the duties of their office from mandarins appointed for
that purpose. There are two mandarins of this class in Canton,
one living in a yamun in T'say-yan-lee street of the ne^v city
and holding oflice under the prefect, and the other residing in a
yamun in the street called Choong-hom-lan, also of the new
cit}', and holding office under the Nam-hoi magistrate. For
this license they are obliged to pay four dollars. The priests
are presided over by abbots called Sze-Sze, who are numerous
in each province. The abbots in turn are subject to an arch-
abbot, who lives in great style at his princely residence on the
Dragon and Tiger mountains in the province of Kiang-si. The
power of this dignitary is enormous, and is acknowledged by all
the priests of the sect throughout the empire. Like the Lama
of Thibet, he appears to hold a position subordinate only to-
that of the Emperor. I believe he is admitted into the presence
of the Emperor once in each period of three years. The office
is confined to one family or clan called Chaong, as it has been
for several centuries. On the demise of the arch-abbot, the
Chinese are credulous enough to believe that his successor is
chosen in the following singular manner. All the male members
of the clan are cited to appear at the official residence. The
names of each, having been engraved in lead, are deposited in a
large earthenware vase filled with water, and round this are
stationed priests who invoke the three persons of the Taouist
trinity, to cause the piece of lead bearing the name of the
person on whom the choice of the gods has fallen to come to
the surface of the water. The headc^uarters of Taouism in the

104 • CHINA. [niAP.

province of Kwaug-tung, are on the Low-fow Shan or Tiger
mountains, where there are numerous monasteries, nunneries,
and hermitages constructed with much taste. These abodes of
retirement from the cares of life are beautifully situated amidst
varied scenery, and overlook the most lovely landscapes. It is
sad to think that scenes so fair should form the headquarters of
one of the grossest systems of superstition that ever extended
a vast network of lies to entangle foolisli and depraved hearts ;
and that the cloisters wdiicli stud these hills should be occupied
by devotees who — ignorant of the Triune Jehovah, and following
the instructions of the fallible founder of their sect, and the
absurd traditions which have been superadded to them — present
one of the most melancholy of the many examples which earth
affords of the blind led by the blind.

A few words may not be out of place here on the Taouist
nunneries. Taouist nuns do not shave their heads, like the nuns
of the sect of Buddha — of whom I shall have occasion to speak
later — but tire their hair upon the top of the head like their
priests. In Canton and its suburbs, tliere are many nunneries,
some containing only a few inmates. At C-hoo-loong-Shan, near
the district city of Woo-see Hien, I visited a celebrated Taouist
nunnery, and was introduced to several of its inmates, some of
whom were by no means devoid of personal attractions. They
were unlike Buddhist nuns in respect of their feet, which were
contracted. The institution appears to have been once renowned
for the beauty of its devotees ; and it is recorded that when the
Emperor Keen-lung Wong lodged near it, in the course of a
tour through the northern and central portions of his kingdom,
he became enamoured of one of the nuns, and made her an
inmate of his harem. A gentleman of wealth, of the clan or
family Koo, who followed the Emperor's example, succeeded, it is
said, in making a most happy selection ; for the son whom liis
wife bore him, on becoming a candidate for the Hon-Lum degree
at Pekin, took the first honours. I heard afterwards that these
rcligicuscs had a bad reputation ; and however reluctant to
entertain evil reports of either monks or nuns of any sect, I
was disposed on this occasion to give credence to the rumour.
In 1871, a Taouist nunnery was temporarily suppressed at

IV.] i:i;i-[(;iox.— BUDi'iiisM. 105

Canton, under sonieM'liat extraoixlinary circumstances. A number
of operatives in the Poon-loong-lee ward of the western suburb,
in which the monastery stood, on asking the nuns to contribute
towards the Dj'agon Festival fund, met with a refusal. Enraged
at this, the artisans accused the inmates of being guilty of
grossly immoral conduct, and called upon the elders of the dis-
trict to give their sanction to the suppression of the nunnery,
which they declared to be a sink of ini(|uity. This was granted,
and a number of men armed with sticks and stones assailed
the door of the establishment, and effecting an entrance drove
the poor women from their cloisters. Upon the payment, how-
ever, some days later, of a few taels of silver to their ruffianly
assailants, the nuns were permitted to resume the occupation of
their desolated home.

Taouist nuns nut unfrequently subject themselves to severe
mortifications. On the occasion of my visit to I'ekin, I saw a
devotee who had caused herself to be inclosed in a brick tower,
having resolved to remain in this solitary confinement until she
had obtained funds sufficient to enable her to rebuild the temple
in the courtyard of which her temporary prison stood. The
tower was provided with a small aperture through which she
received her food, and could see all persons passing that way.
As they approached, she was able to command their attention
by means of a long rope attached to the clapper of a bell which
was hung in the centre of the gateway. To my knowledge, she
solicited arms in this tower during a period of three weeks.

BUDDHISM.

"We ]n-oceed to consider the religion of Buddha, which was
brought from India to China in the first century of the Christian
era. As early as 250 B.C. Buddhist missionaries had begun to
make China the scene of their labours, and in the second year
before Christ a num])er of sacred books of their sect Avere
presented to the Emperor of China by an ambassador of the
Tochari Tartars. But Buddhism can only be said to have taken
root in the empire after its official recognition and introduction
by the Emperor :Mingti, of the Han dynasty. It is related in
Chinese history that in the year of our Lord Gl, this emperor

106 CHINA. . [(HAP.

saw in a dream the image of a foreign god entering bis palace.
Greatly impressed with tlie vision and the splendour of the
image, Mingti consulted a younger brother, a great patron of the
Taouists, and he was led to regard the dream as a supernatural
intimation that he should adopt the religion of Buddha. Am-
bassadors were accordingly despatched to India, who returned
with an idol of this god, and a number of priests of the sect.
The Taouists have borrowed from the Buddhists the doctrine of
a trinity of persons, and a variety of forms and ceremonies, and
have always taken part with the Buddhists against Confucianism,
on the side of popular superstition. Others maintain that an
embassy was set on foot in consequence of a prophetic saying-
attributed to Confucius, that the most holy sage would be found
in the west. Tbere can be no doubt that an anticipation of the
coming of the Messiah was entertained by many Asiatic nations ;
but it has never been clearly established that it had penetrated
beyond the frontiers of China. There is nothing very improbable,
it has been remarked, in supposing that Mingti had a dream in
which an idol was the prominent figure, as it is on record, that
a gigantic figure of Buddha, which the Chinese armies captured
in the course of their campaigns in Central Asia, was brought
with other trophies to the Chinese court in the year 121 B.C.

On arriving at the Imperial Court, the Indian priests were
received with much favour, and urged without delay to com-
mence the work of pro})agating their religion. The labours
of these pagan missionaries, and of those who came offer them,
were so successful that in a short time temples of the sect
were erected in almost every part of the empire. Long after
it had taken firm root in the land, the progress of Buddhism
continued to be marked by many fluctuations. Some of the
emperors were disposed to look upon it as a foreign innova-
tion, and — instigated by the Confucianists — they made its
followers the victims of several severe persecutions. To^^-ards
the end of the thirteenth century, according to a census of
the Buddhist temples and monks in China taken by Imperial
command, there were 42,318 of the former, and 213,148 of
the latter. This powerful superstition seems to have seen its
best days. At present the prosperity of the sect is evidently

IV.] RELIGION.— BUDDHISM. 107

on the decliiu', und, especially in S(jme portions of the empire,
it appears to have waned before the iconoclastic elements of the
Taiping rehellion.

The conjectures of writers with regard to the founder of
Buddhism have been very various. Some have supposed
Euddha to be identical with Noah, others with Moses. Not
a few have contended that he was no other than Sijihoas,
the thirty-fifth monarch of Egypt. The Hindoos regard him
as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu. According to the account
now generally agreed upon by F.uropean scholars, Slullv-
yamuni Gautama Buddha was a religious reformer who lived
in the latter hiilf of the seA^enth and the first half of the
sixth century before the Christian era, the year 543 B.C. being
fixed as that in which his death took place. He was born in
Kapilavastu, on the Iwrders of Nepanl, and claimed to be of
royal descent. Buddhist tradition asserts that the bitter ex-
periences of polygamy induced him to abandon his prospects
as a prince, and to seek in the solitude of a wilderness, and
in a life of anstere asceticism, that peace of mind which he
was unable to find in his home. Behind this lay a profound
sense of the miseries to which mankind is subject. As he
brooded on them, life became empty of significance and value.
To escape from misery, he argned, man must virtually escape
from existence, and he placed his heaven in Nirvtma, which,
has been interpreted by some to mean " a complete extinction
of the soul at death," and by others a more or less unccmscious
state of existence. To attain Nirvana or rest, there must be
a complete extinction not merely of sinful dispositions and
desires, but of the desire for life itself. These conclusions
derived their force from the doctrine of metempsychosis, or
transmigration, then held by all classes of Indian society.
Eejecting Brahmanisra, and ignoring the doctrine of a Supreme
Being, Buddha still retained in a modified form ^ thi.s feature

' Strictly speaking, Biuldhism denies tlie existence of the soul, and bridges
over the chasm which it thus creates between each successive life by the mystery
of Karma. As Mr. Khys Davids puts it in a very interesting article which
appeared in the Contemporari) Review for January 1877 : — ""When a sentient
being (man, angel, or animal) dies, a new being is instantly produced in a more
or less painful and material state of existence, according to the Karma, the

108 CHINA. [riiAP.

of the elder religion ; and whatever we are to understand by
it precisely. Nirvana involved at least a cessation from the
continuity of restless and miseraljle existence in successive
lives. In that sinful condition which he termed Trishnd, thirst,
or Upadana, grasping, life must, he taught, go on reproducing
itself in numberless births, the more or less painful condition
of each life being exactly determined by the Karma, or desert
of the being who has died.

"This dogma of the soul's pilgriniage througli nature,"
remarks the Eev. E. J. Eitel in the second of his Three
Lectures on Buddhism, "is a mighty weapon in the hands of
an eloquent preacher. There is nothing so very frightful to us
descendants of western nations in the idea of transmigration.
There may be rather something attractive in it for many. For
life is to us the highest blessing, and death we hate. Many
would therefore submit to a thousand deaths if they were to live
again a thousand times, and they would not care mucli how
their lives might be, for life is precious to us in itself. But a
different thing altogether it is with the sons of hot climates,
with the lazy indolent Hindoo, with the sedentary Chinaman.
To him life itself has no particular fascination. He counts
death — if he may rest after that — a blessing."

But Buddhism recognizes the fundamental moral principle,
that there is no rest for the wicked. The weight of his guilt
carries the sinner down in that graduated scale of existence
which, culminating in the highest heaven, ends in the lowest
hell. Condemned first to torture in one of the infernal kino-
doms, he is released only to reappear as a hard-worked animal,
or an unclean cur, or a po^•erty-stricken mortal. Until the soul,
awakened to its higher life by a knowledge of the doctrines
of this system, has entered upon the " noble path," and after
numberless births has been weaned from its attachment to
the tilings of time and sense, the haven of rest cannot be
reached.

Desert — merit or demerit— of the being \v\\o hns died." To tlie question, "What
becomes of consciousness of identity? Buddhism is, of course, not able to give
a satisfactory reply ; but its reply, such as it is, is sufficient to establish a
connection in the minds of tlie people between this doctrine and the doctrine of
metempsychosis.— Ed.

IV.] RELIGIUX.--lU;i>I)IIISM. log

So soon as Buddha had solved, as he tliought, the probhMu of
salvation, he began a course of open-air ])reaching, and by his
eloquence succeeded everywhere in making converts. One of
the gTea,t sources of his power over the masses was the idea
that myriads of ages before he came to them as Buddha, he had
become a ralmt {i.e., had reached the final state of perfection
which entitled him to enter Nirvana), and that he had volun-
tarily Hung himself once more into the stream of existence, and
endured its miseries in numberless births, in order that he
might thereby become the deliverer of mankind. Preaching the
complete insignificance of caste and properly, and tlie vanity of
all earthly good, he taught his followers to lead lives of volun-
tary poverty and celibacy. He urged them to sustain the body
upon a strictly vegetable diet, and utterly condemned the
slaughter of cattle, or of any living creature — on which principle
he was also strenuously opposed to war.

Like the speculative system of which Laou-tsze was the
founder, Buddhism quickly developed into an idolatry, under
which every kind of superstition sheltered itself; and of this
idolatry the founder of the sect is the central object. Buddha, as
worshipped by the Chinese, is represented in the form of a triune
deity, the three persons of which are popularly known as Buddha
Past, Buddha Present, and Buddha Future. Buddha Past, which
is Shakyamuni himself, represents a state — Nirvana — in which
the soul, which is regarded as an igneous aerial particle when
separated from the body, is reunited with the substance of the
heavens, and so exists in that trance-like state which the
Buddhists regard as the highest felicity. Into this state, how-
ever, the Chinese are taught that no soul can enter who has not
previously passed through the state of Butldha Present. The
duties which devolve upon this person of the Buddhist trinity,
consist hi imparting instruction to, and seeking to promote the
salvation of, men in answer to prayer. Only those, however,
who have attained a higher state of intelligence, can^understand
and appreciate the exalted wisdom of this second person of the
P.uddhist trinity. As soon as the duties of the votary have
been fully discharged, lie enters upon the state of Buddha
Past, where the soul is supposed to be reunited to the substance

110 CHINA. • [chap.

of tlie heavens. Buddha Future is so-called because he is the
recognized successor of Buddha Present, whose place as Buddha
Present become Buddha Past is always being filled up by what
was Buddha Future. Buddha Future is as it were at once
the servant of Buddha Present and the coming Messiah of
Buddhism. He is supposed to enter more fully into the wants
and requirements of men. He is regarded as the guide and
guardian of mankind in their endeavours to attain that degree of
wisdom and holy abstraction from the things of time and sense
which is requisite to qualify them to pass into Mrvana. As
Buddha Future is thus the connecting link between sinful man
and Buddha Present, it is customary for him to be more invoked
than the latter. The path, however, which leads to the supremxC
holiness and felicity of Buddha Fastis not an easy one, and only
those who are gifted wdth pre-eminent wisdom and self-denial
can hope to be successful. The majority of votaries seek, by the
far less exacting worship of Amitabha, to obtain entrance into a
Paradise in " the pure land of the western heaven." This is the
Nirvana of the common people. In this land of delights, how-
ever, they do not secure an eternity of bliss, but the blissful
revolutions of centuries of thousands and of millions of
years.

Some devotees, more earnest or corifident of their powers, resort
to the mountains and solitudes, to gain the holiness that may
secure them absorption in Buddha Past. In the Lin-fa Shan hills,
near the Bogue Forts, I found a priest who had for this purpose
taken up his abode in a cave. He appeared to think that he
would in all probability be called upon to pass through various
states of existence Ijefore he reached the goal towards which he
was pressing. I could not help feeling how sad it was that the
earnestness of this devotee, whom Satan had placed under strong
delusions to believe a lie, had not for its object that gracious
Being who, when upon earth, as God manifested in the flesh, said
to all sin-convinced souls, " Come unto me all ye that labour
and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest." Other devotees
shut themselves up in the cells of monasteries, and for years
refuse to hold communication with their brethren. During this
time they allow their hair and nails to grow to a prodigious

v.] KELIGIOX.- BUDDIlTS.Ar. Ill

leiiglli. In 1865, I saM' a priest "wlio for the space of a year had
not reclined in his celh He was confined in it more like a
wild beast than a human being, liis food being passed to him
through a trap-door. Many Buddhist devotees seek to subdue
the tlesh, by intiicting painful severities on their bodies. I
remember meeting with a company of priests, one of whom
pulling up the sleeve of his coat and uncovering an arm without
a hand, begged for alms, assuring me that he had, by a slow
process, burned his hand to the stump, as an atonement for his
sins, and as a recommendation for his promotion at some future
time to the state of Buddha Past. At Pekin, when visiting a
monastery of this sect, I saw a priest who had shut himself up
for several days and nights in a large sedan chair, the interior of
which was thickly studded with sharp nails of great length, so
that he could not move in any direction. He informed me and
others ^vho stood round his penitential chair, that the nails
accpiired a heavenly virtue in proportion to the misery which
they caused him, and that he was prepared to sell them for a
few candareeus each, as antidotes against evil. He assured us
that he had resolved to remain in the sedan chair, until every
nail had been sold. At Tien-tsin I saw a priest who had
passed through his cheeks a sharp skewer, to the end of which
he had attached a chain. To relieve him of its weight, some
little boys were holding up the chain — an act which was of
course regarded as very meritorious. Sometimes these devotees
perform pilgrimages of penance to distant shrines, travelling-
hundreds of miles on foot. It is remarkable that the Buddhists
should subject themselves to such self-torture, as Buddha
himself on one occasion preached a most powerful sermon
against such follies. They seem, however, only to be follow-
ing the tendency which is in man to invest his vain gods with
the attributes of cruelty. The religions of heathendom consist
in a great measure of what we may term ceremonies of depre-
cation, and in the self-mutilation of the Buddhists, we see the
same spirit at work which led the priests of Baal to cut them-
selves Avith knives.

"Agreeably to the inference which all this furnishes," says
JJr. Doran in writing on this subject, " we find Tacitus declare

11--^ CHINA. [ru.w.

(Hist. i. 4), ' Xon esse cun^j dies securitatem nostram, sed
iiltionem.' In fact it was a current opinion amongst the ancient
heathen that the gods were jealous of human happiness." ^

Many of these devotees join the order of mendicant friars, and
beg from door to door for their daily bread, as a way of redemp-
tion from sin and its consequences. Not a few members of the
order travel over a vast extent of country, in search of funds
for the restoration of decayed monasteries. These begging friars
are lodged in monasteries ; in the absence of these retreats,
they seek asylum by night in the cottages of the people, never
failing to impress upon the minds of their hosts tliat it is a good
deed to entertain the wandering friar, and that the doers will
liave their reward in another world. The mendicant friars
generally travel in companies of three, two beating small gongs
to announce their approach, whilst the third carries on a stand
a small idol of Buddha to induce those whom they meet to con-
tribute to the fund which they have established for tlie restora-
tion of decayed monasteries. In the busy streets of Canton, I
once saw a Chinese shoemaker forcibly eject three such begging-
intruders from his shop. The friars evidently regarded the son

^ A curious illustration of this morbid sentiment is afforded in a device to
which Chinese parents occasionally have recourse in the case of a sickly, or puny,
or only son. They procure the adoption of such a lad into other families, in
order that the boy's chances of long life and good health may be increased. Of
this singular practice, the Rev. Justus Doolittle writes in his Social Life of the
Chinese (vol. ii. p. 229) : — " His real parents imagine that the gods will let him
live, if his parents think so little of hiiu as to allow hira to be adopted into
another family, on the principle that he is a worthless or indifferent lad. Some
believe that certain gods or evil spirits are desirous of ruining the liealth of
bright children, or children of particular promise. Now the parents of the
beloved lad, or the only sou, though they really almost idolise him, hope to be
able to cheat and delude such gods into the belief that their child is of no
particular consequence, by having him adopted into the family of some friend.
They, in fact, desire that he should live to grow up as one of the greatest boons
they can possibly liope for in this world. Influenced by the same secret reasons
parents sometimes shave off, for the space of several years, all the hair from the
head of their only son just as a priest of the Buddhist sect has the hair all
shaved from his head ; they call him little priest, and pretend to treat him as a
worthless child, and of no more consequence in the affairs of the ^\■orld than is
the despised priest. For the same reason they designate him by very derogatory
names or epithets, hoping to delude the maliciously -disposed gods into the idea
that thev care little or nothing about the lad's health or life."— Ed.

IV.] HKLIGION.— BTDDIIISM. ll.'}

of St. Crispin as an infidel, for wlioni t\w next world reserved
its sternest penalties.

In the north of China, the priests do not traverse the country
in company, but singly. Their manners ara very sanctimonious.
In some cases a priest will halt to pray at every fifty paces.
Some of them never raise their eyes from the ground. In Chi-li
one finds them stationed at frequent intervals along the high-
ways, each priest provided with a gong, which he sounds on
the approach of a wayfarer. They stimulate almsgiving by
promising to pray for blessings on the donors. As I passed
them, they invariably promised that they would pray for rain
if I gave them aim?;, a drought at that time }»revailing in
Chi-li.

The great majority of the priests reside in monasteries. In
all these establishments stand colossal figures of the Buddhist
trinity, before which the priests pray, morning and evening.
Like those of the heathen in the time of our Lord, these prayers
are but " vain repetitions." Indeed the language in which their
liturgical services are written, and which is called after the
birthplace of Buddha, is not only unintelligible to the Chinese
generally, but to the priests themselves. The chanting of the
prayers is sometimes accompanied by the music of flutes or fifes,
and the Chinese clarionet. x\ll the Buddhist temples are
collegiate as well as monastic institutions, and numbers of young
candidates for the priesthood are generally engaged, uiider the
superintendence of the senior priests, in the study of their
sacred writings. When their collegiate course is completed, the
young men are called upon to present themselves for dedication.
On their part the ceremony consists in prayer. They are also
called upon to take certain vows — generally nine in number.
In the monasteries of the province of Kiang-si, the priests
usually take twelve vows ; and in those of Soo-chow and Hang-
chow there are priests who have taken one hundred and eight
vows. That they may be always duly remanded of these vows,
it is customary to make an impression for each vow on the
fleshy part of the arm, with a sharp-pointed iron rod heated red
hot. Some priests have these marks imprinted on the forehead.
The custom of placing these marks on the forehead is more

VOL. I. I

114 CHINA. . [chap.

popular with the priests of the province of Kiang-si than with
those in the more southerly parts of Chioa.

The nine vows which the priests take at the time of their
dedication are as follows : — That they will neither kill, nor
steal, nor commit adultery ; that tliey will neither slander, nor
revile, nor lie; that they will not indulge in feelings of jealousy,
or hatred, or folly. In the case of those who take twelve vows,
the three following are added, namely : that they will not give
vent to feelings of anger, nor foster infidel notions, nor listen to
profane conversation. Though many are trained in the temples
from boyhood, men wdio have passed the middle age of life,
desirous of escaping from the cares of the world, are often per-
mitted to assume the sacerdotal character. As the priests of
Buddha are all celibates, it is necessary for such persons, if
married, to put away their wives. In the event of the monastic
life proving irksome, they are at liberty to throw aside the
priestly character with all its obligations, and return to more
congenial pursuits.

The monks seldom attain to a great age. This is owing, I
believe, in a great measure to the fact that they are all addicted
to opium-smoking. Their idle life too must have a tendency to
shorten their days, for nothing is so conducive to longevity as
agreeable studies and vigorous outdoor exercise. To all rules,
however, there are exceptions, and in Buddhist monasteries I
have occasionally met with very aged men. Tlie most vener-
able by far of all the bonzes I met resided in a monastery near
Koo-pee-ko. He was eighty-five years of age, and had spent
eighty years of this period in the monastery where I found him,
having gone thither as a pupil on the completion of his fifth
year.

Every large monastery is presided over by an abbot, who
holds ofiice during a period of three years. The senior priests
meet in council the day before the election of this dignitary, and
name two persons as eligible for the offi.ce. On the day of the
election, one of these is chosen by the votes of the senior priests.
A day is then set apart for the consecration of the abbot elect.
It is held as a gala day, not only by the priests of the monastery,
but by the respectable people of the district. In 1861, 1 attended

IV.] RKLIGI0N.-BUL)D]IIS:\[. 115

the consecration of an abbot at the famous temple of Honam,
and as the ceremony was appointed to take place at half-past
one o'clock in the the morning, it was necessary to proceed to
the temple before the gates were closed on the preceding night.
Upon my arrival, I inquired if I might be permitted to spend
the night there. Tlie priests, with all of whom I was well
acquainted, gave me a hearty welcome, and escorted me at once
to the quarters of the abbot, who ordered a chamber to be set
apart for my especial use. After some time I returned to the
reception-room of the abbot elect, where I found him engaged
in entertaining a select party of friends at supper. Of this
repast I was invited to partake. The ^'iands consisted of
roast pork, boiled fowl, fish, rice, and vegetables ; and as the
diet of the priests, according to the teaching of Buddlia, ought
to be of a vegetable nature only, I could not but regard the
abbot elect as guilty of an infringement of the rules of the
monastery, and of a direct violation of a doctrine wliich it
was his duty to observe and promulgate. Supper being ended,
the abbot together with his cousin, who was one of the guests,
retired to an opium couch in the same apartment, and enjoyed
four or five pipes of the obnoxious drug. The pipe was filled
and presented to the abbot on each occasion by his cousin.
Having satiated his appetite, and as it was now ten o'clock,
the abbot and the majority of his guests retired to their
chambers. After a short conversation with the abbot's cousin,
who informed me that he was a proprietor of passenger boats
plying between Hongkong and Macao, I also retired. Sleep
was out of the question, for the lay brothers, who, as watch-
men, patrol the courts of monasteries by night, kept me awake
by the prayers which they repeated in a dull monotone as
they paced from court to court, calling upon Buddha to grant
sweet repose to the holy fathers. At two o'clock in the
morning 1 was summoned to witness the ceremony of conse-
cration. Upon entering the reception room of the abbot, I
found it crowded with monks, all attired in full costume.
After friendly salutations and expressions of attachment had
been exchanged between the abbot and the monks, a proces-
sion was formed for tlie purpose of escorting him to the principal

1 2

116 CHINA. . [chap.

shrine of the monastery containing the colossal idols of the three
Buddhas. The procession was headed by several musicians who
were in robes of scarlet silk with gold facings, and carried
clarionets, flates, gongs, and cymbals. The morning being very
dark, the passages of the monastery along which the procession
had to pass were illuminated by several Chinese lanterns,
bearing curious designs. Immediately behind the musicians
followed two priests, the one carrying a small tray covered
with odoriferous flowers, and the other a copy of the litur-
gical services of the sect of Buddha. Next came the abbot
arrayed in purple. He was followed by two priests, the one
bearing the rod of ottice, and the other the abbot's crosier.
Then followed upwards of one hundred monks walking two
abreast. "When the abbot had come into the presence of the
idols, he intoned a prayer of dedication from the copy of the
liturgy which had been placed on the altar by the priest who
carried it in the procession. The prayer of dedication ended,
the abbot performed the kow-tow in front of the three Buddhas,
amidst a salvo of fire-crackers, and the discordant notes of
drums and cymbals. He was then escorted to the various
shrines within the precincts of the monastery, and before each
of these a similar ceremony was gone through, the only difference
in each case being in the prayers. When the shrines had been
visited, the procession returned in the same order to the throne
room, where the abbot prostrated himself at the feet of an idol
of the abbot who, several centuries before, had established tlie
monastery. Upon rising to his feet, he advanced towards the
throne, and after various genuflections ascended the high dais
upon which it stood. At this moment a priest advanced from
the crowd wlio were standing around in solemn silence, and
performed the kow-tow in front of the throne. When this
act of homage had been fully rendered, the abbot took his seat,
his train-bearers spreading the skirts of his garments over the
low back of the chair. Having made certain declarations with
reference to the property, and the efficient discharge of the
duties of office, he received a switch made of horse-hair, wliich
he waved gracefully about his person. This act was indicative
of his desire to remove from himself everything polluted.-

TV.] UEI.IGIOX.- -BUDDHISM. 117

At this part of the ceremony the abbot was invested with the
rod of office and crosier, wliich were phiced on either side of the
throne in stands ready to receive them. He tlien vacated the
throne, and as he paused at the foot, the monks in attendance
all performed the kow-tow in liis presence. Upon his return
to the reception-room he held a levee, at which he received the
congratulations of the monks. Tlie last presentation was a
young priest who had been instructed by the abbot, and who
showed his regard and reverence by throwing himself at his
feet. The monks having retired to their cells, the abbot, with
his lantern-bearers, hastened to pay his respects to eacli in
return, a ceremony which did not terminate until the sun had
made considerable process in his daily march.

At ten o'clock tlie temple was crowded by monks from the
various monasteries in Canton and its neighbour!) ood. They
were received and presented to the abbot by a master of
ceremonies. As they attempted to perform the kow-tow, they
were interrupted by the abbot, who souglit to impress upon
the mind of each his wish to dispense with the ceremony.
The mandarins, however, several of whom attended in their
court dresses, were permitted to proceed with the kow-tow.
I could not help thinking that priestly arrogance was a feature
of this idolatrous religion. A large banquet at which upwards
of two hundred priests were present, was given at noon in the
refectory of the monastery. The abbot was seated in state at
a high table, round which twelve priests stood to serve him.
He was escorted to and from the banqueting hall by bands of
music, and during the procession was the object of much
popular interest, the courtyards of the monastery being crowded
almost to suffocation.

The duties of an abbot consist chiefly in receiving and disburs-
ing the revenues of the monastery, which arise from endowments
inlands and houses; in seeing that the services of the sarctuary
are duly performed ; in attending to the morals of the priests
who are subject to his authority; and in expounding the
doctrines of the sect in the hearing of the assembled brethren.
Xow-a-days, if not altogether abandoned, the latter duty is
very much neglected, as the abbots of the various monasteries

118 CHINA. ■ [chap.

appear to consider their office as public preachers fully and
efticiently discharged when they have read aloud the Book of
the Law in the hearing of the priests — a ceremony which it is
their custom to observe on the first and fifteenth days of each
month.

The priesthood is supplied by men from all classes of society.
The great majority of the priests are from the lower orders of
tlie people. Few, very few, indeed, of the wealthier classes
ever think of abandoning their home comforts for the gloom
and solitude of a Buddhist cloister. It is not unusual for
poor parents, with sickly children, to seek admission for them
into monasteries, that they may be educated for the priesthood,
and may obtain without exertion the common necessaries of
life. Tliere is a law, however, which prohibits all the male
members of a family becoming priests. If there are but two
sons in a family, one only, the younger son, is permitted.

Although education is popular in China, no great pains are
bestowed upon the youthful candidates for the priesthood.
This explains the low degree of intelligence of the monks as
a body. The majority are sadly wanting in earnestness in the
discharge of religious exercises. N"o doubt this is one of tlie
chief reasons why Buddhism no longer has the power over the
minds of the people which it had in the Middle Ages, when
imperial zeal and popular favour combined to render it para-
mount throughout the land. To this reason for the evident decay
of Buddhism in China may be added the still more urgent one,
that the priests as a body are not at all an exemplary class
of men. Among the professors of every religon there are, of
course, good and bad ; but in Christian lands, a minister who
is a defaulter is an exception to the general rule. In heathen
China — I am not now confining my remarks to Buddhists — the
majority of the priests are notorious for their violation of
monastic rules, and their utter disregard of the tenets which
they profess to hold, and the morality to which they are bound.
In almost every cell there is an opium couch, upon which its
frocked possessor may be seen stretched at length in the full
enjoyment of the noxious drug. A former abbot of the Honani
temple, named Chip Hong, complained bitterly to me of the

iv.J RELIGION.— BUDDHISM. 119

degeneracy of the priests of the present day, and attributed it to
the system wliicli allows of men becoming- priests at an advanced
period of life, and, as is often the case, for tlie purpose of escaping
from impending justice. In some instances Buddhist temples
are regarded as inviolable sanctuaries for transgressors of the
law. The abbot added that the priests who had been brought up
in monasteries from boyhood were the best ; although even they,
he said with a sigh, are in some instances unfortunately con-
taminated by the bad example of those admitted into the priest-
hood in later life. In the monastery over which he formally
presided, I once saw a person who had joined the order with a
view of escaping from justice. He had taken part with the
rebels who infested Kwang-tung in 1854, 55, and had exposed
himself to the extreme penalty of the law. As he had a little
property, he was admitted without difticulty, his funds having
been appropriated for the further endowmient of the monastery.
Under such circumstances, the monks are always ready to
become securities for the future good conduct of a newly-
acquired brother. In a monastery near the prefectoral city of
Shu-hing, I found a monk who had not only been a rebel, but
the proprietor of several houses containing no fewer than two
hundred women ; and in one of the monasteries on the White
Cloud jMountains I found one who had taken his vows to
escape the penalty of having killed a man in a drunken brawl.
In Canton a Buddhist priest and his concubine were flogged
through the streets in 1864 ; and in 18G9, in the same city,
the case became public of a priest from the White Cloud
Mountains having been found in a house of ill-fame, robbed
of his clothes and money, and bound hand and foot. In 18G1,
a young monk who was in charge of a small temple at Canton,
called Hoi-foksze, and who had been trained from his early
boyhood for the priesthood in an adjoining temple, committed a
most diabolical murder. A collector of taxes called to ask
payment of a tax for the rice grounds with which the temple
was endowed. Having come a long distance and being much
fatigued wdth his journey, he was compelled to spend the night
in the temple. The young monk was addicted to gambling, and
finding that the tax-gatherer had about his person a large .«um

120 CHLXA. • [cHAr.

of money, resolved, if possible, to obtain it. At the dead hour
of night, therefore, the priest entered the apartment in which
the tax-gatherer lay, and stabbed him to the heart. Having
rifled the pockets of his victim, he cut the murdered body into
pieces, so as to carry it with greater ease to a place of conceal-
ment. The mangled remains were eventually put into a box,
and conveyed on that night and the following night by the
priest and his servant, who, for a portion of the stolen money,
had become particejis criminis, to the banks of the Canton
river, and thrown into its waters. The servant ultimately
betrayed his master, who was speedily apprehended. I
frequently visited this unfortunate monk. He was confined
with several other prisoners in a large ward, where, as there
were no boards, he was obliged to sleep on the damp ground.
He was soon after seized ^^•ith a low typhoid fever, which
rescued him from a disgraceful death. The commission of such
a deed by a Buddhist priest is of course very exceptional ; but
the fact remains that many of them occupy the same dangerous
border-land of careless and immoral living from which this
man so easily slipped into the abyss of crime. One of the
duties of the abbot consists in attending to the morals of his
priests ; and in each monastery there is a tribunal, before
which priests are occasionally arraigned for offences, such as
drunkenness, profane swearing, whoredom, thieving, &c. The
punishment is a flogging, administered with hearty goodwill
by one of the lay brothers, on the naked back of the offender.
The priest who has been thus punished is further degraded by
being made to beg his bread from temple to temple. In the
city of Canton, priests who have been arraigned before the
abbot for any of these offences and flogged have to spend the
thirty days of each calendar month throughout the course of
the year thus: — five days at the monastery of Honam; five at
that which is called the Flowery Forest Monastery ; five at the
monastery of the Great Buddha ; five at the temple of Lon-
gevity, and five at the • monastery of the Sleeping Buddha.
The apartments allotted to these degraded priests are the
worst which the monasteries contain, and the rice doled out to
them is coarse in quality and scanty in measure. So illiberal

IV.] mCLICilOX.-lU'DDIlISM. 121

is the band which supplies tlieir necessities, that the pangs of
hunger not unfreqiientiy compel them to traverse the streets
with wallets on their backs, begging food from door to door. I
remember seeing a young priest bastinadoed and degraded in
the monastery of llonam for liaving stolen some articles of
wearing apparel belonging to a brother monk. I had known
him for several years. Wlien I first saw him, he was not more
than ten years of age. When he arrived at years of discretion,
however, it was discovered that he was addicted to opium-
smoking and gambling ; and that to obtain the funds requisite
he was obliged to steal. His tutor, who was an incorrigible
opium-smoker, had trained up his pupil in the ways of vice.
He called nie on one occasion to admonish the }oung man, in
whom he still professed to feel an interest, and he was
both surprised and indignant when I informed him that I
thought the evil work of demoralization, which he was so
desirous of checking, had had its commencement during tlie
time the youth was under his care. I could adduce many more
instances which came under my notice during my long residence
in China, of the depravity of the Buddhist priesthood. The
examples already given are sufficient to indicate that my
statement as to the low morality of the order is not exaggerated.
The priests do not appear to attain to a good old age ; and those
among them who have reached fifty years seem very infirm and
decrepit.

It is customary to burn the dead bodies of Buddhist priests,
and the ceremony of cremation invariably takes place twelve
hours after death. One afternoon in March, 1856, I witnessed
it in the monastery at Honam. As I entered the inner gates
my attention was directed to an apartment, the doors of which
were crowded by a number of priests arrayed in sackcloth, and
wearing white bandages round their foreheads. Drawing near I
learned that the priests were preparing to convey to the funeral
pile the mortal remains of a departed brother. The corpse,
attired in a cowl and with the hands fi.xed in the attitude of
prayer, -u'as placed in a bamboo chair in a sitting posture, and
carried to the pyre by six secular monks. All the monks
were in attendance, and walked two alreast, immediatelv

122 CHINA. • [chap.

behind the remains of the departed friar. As the long pro-
cession advanced, the walls of the monastery echoed with
the chanting of prayers and the tinkling of cymbals. When
the bearers reached the pyre, they placed the chair containing
the corpse upon it, and the fagots were then kindled by the
chief priest. Whilst the body was enveloped in flames, the
mourners prostrated themselves upon the ground in obeisance
to the ashes of one with whom they had been accustomed
to join in prayer and praise. When the fire had burned
itself out, the attendants collected the charred bones and
placed them in a cinerary urn, which was then deposited in
a small shrine within tlie precincts of the monastery. The
cinerary urns remain in this shrine until the ninth day of the
ninth montli, when the ashes which they contain are emptied
into bags of red cloth, which are then sewn up and thrown into
a large ossuary, or species of monastery mausoleum. These
edifices, built of granite, are called by the Chinese Poo-toong-tap,
and are upon an extensive scale. That belonging to the monastery
of Honam is a noble piece of masonry, and is divided into two
compartments, one being for the ashes of monks, and the other
for those of nuns. The bags of red cloth with their contents
are consigned to these receptacles through small apertures just
sufficiently large for their admission. At the monastery called
Wallam-sze, or Flowery Forest, the remains of the monks are
burned in a temple set apart for the purpose. It is some dis-
tance beyond the north-east gate of Canton, and the bodies of
the dead priests are carried to it in large sedan chairs which are
inclosed on all sides. The ashes of the monks of this monastery
are conveyed to a mausoleum beautifully situated on the banks
of a small rivulet called King-ti-hang, which flows at the foot
of the White Cloud Mountains. The remains of monks are not,
however, always disposed of by cremation — occasionally they
are interred. In June, 1871, the remains of Hang Sun, one of
the most distinguished of the monks of the Honam monastery,
were conveyed for interm-ent to the cemetery at Tai-kum-cliung.
A newspaper correspondent in writing of the ceremony thus
described it : —

IV.] UKIJG ION. -BUDDHISM. 123

" Previous to the removal of the corpse, bonzes, to tlie nmuLer
of 200, assembled to assist in discharging the last rites. Around
a temporary altar, which was erected in the hall where the dead
man lay in state, many of the monks arranged themselves in order,
and engaged in a mass for the repose of the soul of their departed
brother. At tlie close of this ceremony, an aged priest, clad in
purple vestments, came forward, and presented to the portrait of
the deceased, v/hicli was suspended above the temporary altar to
which I have referred, the insignia of the high office which, it
appears, the departed friar had at one time held. A conductor
of ceremonies then gave commands for the removal of the corpse
— a command which was quickly obeyed. The priests now
arranged themselves in long rows on each side of the avenue by
which tlie monastery is approached, and, as the cotUn was borne
past, they followed it, two abreast, to its last resting-place. At
the outer gate of the monastery two monks were stationed, whose
duty consisted in giving to each respectable person present a
small piece of silver money. Each gift of this nature was
inclosed in a white paper envelope, upon which Chinese cha-
racters, implying ' lucky money,' were written. A great many
gentlemen from the city and its environs, who were friends of
the deceased, joined this sombre cavalcade. Each of them, as
well as each of the monks, wore on the occasion a broad white
sash round his waist."

As regards architecture and internal arrangement, all the large
monasteries are precisely alike. As the visitor enters the gates
his attention is arrested by two large figures. These are called
Chun-Kee and Ma-Sic, and the gates are supposed to be in their
charge. Under a second gateway there are four figures called
Mo-li-Hang, Mo-li-Shon, Mo-li-Hoi, and Mo-li-Ching, of equal
size with the former, and placed two on each side. They are
described as the representatives of the North, South, East, and
"West of China, and are supposed to give effect with alacrity to
the will of Buddha, Beyond the second gateway is the principal
hall of the temple, in which are placed the three idols known as
Buddha Bast, Present, and Future. In the rear of this principal
hall are two others, the one of which contains a dagoba,^ under

* Many of these dagobas are made of wliite marble, and are ver}' grand nnd
imposing. The dagoba in the Hoi-Tong-sze, or Ocean Banner Monastery, is
niagnific'ent, but it is snrpassed by one in a large Lama temple at the north side
of the city of Pi-kin. On the sides of this dngoba there nrp representations of

124 CHINA. [chap,

M hicli there is a relic of Buddha, and the other an idol of the
goddess of Mercy. There are also several other smaller shrines
of Kwan-te, Vishnu, and other deities of less note. One of these
contains an idol of the first abbot of the monastery. Before it
is placed a board on whicli are recorded the names of all the
departed abbots of the cloister. On each side of the large
courtyards in 'O'hich the principal halls of the temple are erected,
are rows of cells for the monks, a visitors' hall, a refectory, and,
sometimes, a printing-office, where the liturgical services used by
the priests, new works on the tenets of Buddha, and tracts for
general distribution are printed. The visitors' hall consists of
two chambers, between which there is a courtyard. On entering
this hall the visitor goes to what is termed the lowest chamber
whei^e he remains nntil he is bidden by the priest whose duty it
is to receive the guests, to a more honourable apartment. The
refectories are very large, and the priests, who are regarded as
guests, are so disposed at table as to enable the abbot, who is
ex ojfficio their host, to see their countenances. Tables are
arranged on each side of the hall, and only a single row of
monks is seated at each table, their faces, of course, being turned
inwards, while the abbot presides on a da'is placed at the upper
end between the rows. In a country where people are so much
addicted to form and ceremony, the observance of this custom i
looked upon as the essence of politeness. The priests are
summoned to breakfast and dinner by a gong, and are obliged to
appear on such occasions attired in their cowls. When they are
all assembled and seated, a master of ceremonies makes his
appearance, and, at a sign from him, they all rise from their
seats, and, placing their hands in the attitude of prayer, repeat a
grace. A portion of the food thus blessed is then placed on a
stand at the door of the refectory, as an offering to the fowls of
the an' — an observance which is much appreciated by a large

Buddlia's birth ; his earh' training for the priesthood ; his narrow escape from the
hands of wild liarbarians, who plotted his destruction ; his merciful preservation
by the interposition of a sacred- tlower, which is ever attending upon him ; his
death and deification. Under the dagoba, a dress of Buddha is said to have been
deposited. Dagobas, in some instances, are of a pagoda-shape, as in the Flowery
Forest ISIonastery in the city of Canton, and in the Ma-cha Monastery in th
vicinity of the same citv.

IV.] liKLKilON.— BUDDHISM. 125

company of sparrows, who present themselves wilh polite
regularity at the hours of breakfast and dinner. The food
served in the refectory is of a vegetable nature only. As such
a diet, however, although prescribed by the rules of the order, is
distasteful to the priests, all who have incomes sufficiently large
have private messes, consisting of six or eight members, at
which roast pork, boiled fowl, and salt fish are eaten with great
relish, and occasionally washed down by potations of strong
spirituous liquor. While at dinner in the refectory, the priests
are supposed to maintain strict silence, although there is no
Reader, as in many Christian monasteries, to occupy their
attention. The walls of the dining-room, however, are covered
with boards, upon some of which are painted in very legible
characters quotations from various moral writers, warning the
priests of the impropriety of eating too hastily or impatiently,
and urging the importance of the rules of the dining-room.
Upon others are recorded the rules of the monastery, and the
vows of the monks.

In some of the temples the idols are very numerous, and in
Yang-chow Foo I visited one in whicli there are said to be no
fewer than ten thousand. The idols, which are very diminutive,
are contained in one large hall, and in their fanciful but orderly
arrangement present a very singular appearance. In the centre
of the hall stands a pavilion of wood, most elaborately carved,
under which is placed a large idol of Buddha. The pavilion
within and without is literally studded with small idols which
are, I believe, different representations of the same deity. On
each of the four sides of the hall are small brackets supporting
idols of Buddha ; and a still larger number of these are placed on
the beams and pilhirs of tlie vaulted roof. Two are full-sized
figures of the sleeping Buddha. At Pekin and Canton there
are halls precisely similar. The hall of ten thousand idols at
Canton is, like the monastery of which it forms a part, in a most
ruinous state, and the majority of the idols with which its walls
were at one time adorned have disappeared.

Idols^ are usually made of wood, but clay is also frequently

1 In a monastery at Hae-looiig-tang, in the province of C'hi-li, I saw, on an
altar, figures in copper of human boing.«, males and females, which somewhat

126 CHINA. . [chap.

used. Ill the prefecture of Shu-hiiig, where marble quarries
abound, they are iii maiiy cases made of that material. At
Pun-new-chan, a market town on the banks of the Grand
Canal, I saw in a ruined monastery three large iron idols
• representing the Past, Present, and Future Buddhas. I have
also seen in certain temples stone, earthenware, and porcelain
figures. The three large idols in the Tai-fat monastery at
Canton, are said to be made of copper, and many of the small
idols of Buddha are also said to be made of the same material.
Buddha is represented in a variety of postures, and some of
the figures have smiling, whilst others have sorrowful, coun-
tenances.

Buddhist temples are more frequented by female than by
male votaries, in search of such blessings as wealth, offspring,
longevity, or literary distinction. To prevail upon the deity
to grant the gift prayed for, the votary repairs to the pagoda in
the larg(3 hall of the temple, and there, in presence of the
various figures of Buddha, prefers his petition, and offers a vow
to preserve the life of some living creature — such a vow being
regarded most favourably by Buddha. The animal, very often a
fowl, is then presented in front of the pagoda, and solemnly
dedicated to the deity, after which it is consigned to the especial
care and blessing of the priests, ample provision for its main-
tenance having been previously made. In the monastery of
Houam, Canton, there is a large pig-sty containing ten or twelve
sacred pigs of very ample dimensions, for which provision has
thus been made. Of all the sacred pigs which I saw, by far the
largest was in the Pow-toong monastery, in the vicinity of
'\Yu-chang. It was perfectly black, and had been presented to
the temple in the year 1855, by a rich Chinese merchant. At the
former monastery, in addition to its well-stocked pig-sty, there
is a poultry-yard well filled with fowls, ducks, and geese, and
a pen containing a few sheep and goats. In some of the temples

surprised me. Such figures are, I believe, not at all uuconimon iu the monastic
establishments of North China. Some oi' them tend to remind the beholder of
the mythological story of Jupiter and Europa. The essence of this corrupt
worship, which the Buddhists borrowed from an Indian religion, consists, I sup-
pose, iu a reverence for the male and female principles of the universe.

IV.] RKLIGIOX.— BrDimiS.M. 127

one may find several head of horned cattle placed there by
anxious suppliants. In one monastery near Hoo-sliee-woo, in
the province of Chili, I saw a number of sacred horses
and mules; and of all the equid-ce I saw in China, these
M'ere the best groomed. All animals thus consecrated to
Buddha are, as a rule, carefully tended by the monks ; and
when they die, their remains are consigned to the earth
Avith no ordinary degree of tenderness. In the grounds at-
tached to many of the temples are ponds into which fishes of
all khids, rescued by worshippers of Buddha from the troughs
in which they lay exposed for sale at the fishmonger's stall,
are thrown as votive offerings. On the banks of such ponds
generally stands a pillar of stone, upon which the words, " Pre-
serve life, " are inscribed in large characters. In tlie temple at
Honam I once saw a person offering to Buddha ten or twelve
large carp A\'hich were disporting themselves in a tub of water
placed in front of the altar, and which were eventually put
into the pond. In the temple of the Flowery Forest
monastery, or Temple of the Five Hundred Genii, as it is not
unfrequently called, there is a pond in the rear of the visitors'
hall, the waters of which are alive with tortoises placed there by
votaries desirous of rescuing them from the table of the epicure
— an act considered so highly meritorious as to procure from
the beneficent Buddha temporal blessings. Another mode of
propitiating Buddha, is to set at liberty a number of sparrows or
pigeons. At the temple to which I have just referred, I once
saw a lady making a vow before its beautiful marble pagoda to
preserve the lives of several tens of sparrows. When the vow
had been made, the cage containing the birds was carried by the
priest in attendance into an adjoining corridor, where the lady,
opening the door of their prison, set them free. As sparrows
are so frequently made the subject of a vow, large numbers of
them are in consequence exposed for sale at the shops of
poulterers. The birdcatcher has rather a singular method of
taking these birds. He besmears the end of a long rod with
birdlime, and so soon as he espies a number of sparrows
clustering togetlier on the ground or among the long coarse
grass, he thrusts tlie point of his rod amongst them with such

128 CHIXA. . [chap.

dexterity as generally to bring away one or two on the end of
it. The captured birds are then lodged in a cage which he
carries on his back. In severtil Buddhist temples there are
cages resembling hen-coops, containing pigeons which have been
bought and placed there by the monks themselves. On the
doors of the cages are written the words, " Preserve life ; " and
on a visitor to the temple dropping a piece of money — the
value of a pigeon — into a cage, a feathered inmate is set at
liberty by a monk in attendance. Sometimes the vows which
are made at the shrines of Buddha are not fulfilled until the
blessing which the votary seeks has been bestowed. Upon
receiving the blessing, he seldom fails to return to the temple
and fulfil it, lest he should be visited for his unfaithfulness.
One of the vows sometimes made by votaries of both sexes,
is that of abstinence from animal food for a definite period of
time. I have known many instances where this vow has been
openly violated. With the view of making atonement for sins
some expend large suras of money in paving highways. Thus
one of the flights of granite stej^s by which the White Cloud
Mountains are ascended was erected at the expense of a widow
by way of atoning for the sins of her husband.

Many of the Buddhist monasteries have been built on the
sides of hills and mountains, and command extensive and
magnificent views. The most beautiful I have seen in the south
of China, in point of situation, is that called the Ting-hoo-Shan
on the banks of the western branch of the Canton river, and
near the entrance to the Shu-hing pass. On all sides of this
monastery lie scenes of rich variety and beauty. Here spread
wide plains adorned with waving grain ; there hills covered witli
trees of luxuriant foliage, rise in gentle slopes, down which
rivulets hasten to lose themselves amongst the stately trees that
surround the monastery. In the distance, the mountains forming
the Shu-hing pass raise their summits towards the clouds, while
between their rugged sides the western branch of the Canton
river rolls with apparently resistless impetuosity, till widening
beyond into a smooth expanse, it presents the appearance of a
lake at the base of the mountains. At this monastery there is a
pagoda shrine wliich is regarded as very sacred ; and which lio

IV.] IJELIGIOX. — BlT|)DIlJS.^r. 129

one is allowed to eater who has not first washed his body in
holy water. Jars filled with holy water are also kept at this
temple for the purposes of sale, and while I was there, three
nuns arrived who had couie to purchase a supply of the sacred
element. Tlie monastery suffered much during the rehellion of
1855. It is now, however, reltuilt.

Near the Kum-Shan or Golden Hills, and abont twenty miles
in a westerly direction from Oanton, stands another monastery,
which m point of beanty of situation, is entitled to rank next to
the Ting-hoo-8han Monastery. It is so situated on the banks
of the Canton river, that during the summer season, when the
river is very full in consequence of heavy rains, it is entirely
surrounded by water. On its west side, forming a bend of the
river, are the Kum-Shau or Golden Hills, from the summit of
which there is a charming view of the surrounding country.
Near this point the banks are adorned with groves, amongst the
trees of which nestle neat-looking villages. This monastery
was founded upwards of eight hundred years ago, and in con-
sequence of its great antiquity, and the want of funds for repairs,
it is now in a very dilapidated state. Its antiquity, however,
and the beauty of its situation have caused it to be regarded by
the Chinese as one of the seven wonders of the province of
Kwang-tung.

Of the monasteries I visited in the midland provinces, by far
the most beautiful is that of Teen-tung-Sze, in the province of
Tche-kiang. It is distant thirty English miles from the city of
Ning-po, at the head of a beautiful valley. The immediate
approach is through an avenue of lofty cedars, and the hills
which inclose it are covered with trees from base to summit. I
was disappointed with the buildings of the Khan-loo or Sweet
Dew Monastery, which is situate at Chin-kiang. It is delight-
fully placed on a high hill, and eonnnands a most pleasing and
extensive view. Its name is said to have been given to it by
one Chong-Fee, who was either the friend or brother of Lou-
Yuen-Tak or Lou-pee, one of the Chinese emperors. Before
ascending the throne, he is said to have visited this cloister, and
to have written the sentence now recorded on a tablet — Tsin-
San-Tac-Ych-KiangShdi, or "The largest river and most

VOL. I. K

I3(t CHINA. [chap.

important hill of which the empire can boast." This statement
is certainly true of the river, for the stream which rolls so
majestically past the base of the hill is the Yang-tsze.

The most beautiful of the monasteries which I saw in the
north of China was the Ta-chia Sze. It lies at a distance of
twenty-three English miles to the north-west of Pekin. In
the grounds there is an ornamental pond containing a great
number of goldfisli ; and a spring of singular purity, into
which visitors throw copper cash to enable the priests to buy
birds from the poulterer in order to set them free. There is
also a graceful pagoda used as an ossuary for the ashes of
priests. Occasionally the grounds and courtyards of temples
are ornamented in the most fanciful way. The monastery of
Chow-chong-Sze, however, at Chow-loong-shan, a city on the
banks of the Grand Canal, bears the palm in this respect;
and of those remarkable for their rockeries the Longevity
Monastery in the western suburb of Canton may be
mentioned.

In China there are no rock-cut temples. India, it would
appear, is the only country famous for such singular structures.
My attention was directed to some very diminutive shrines and
idols of Buddha^ carved on the sides of old red sandstone
rocks. The most singular of these bas reliefs were those
which I saw in the vicinity of Hang-chow.

The friars have very singular legends to tell. My attention
was directed by one of the priests of the Kum-Shan jMonas-
tery, to a tablet upon which were inscribed a few verses of
poetry, said to have been composed several centuries ago by a
mandarin who passed a night there on his way from Canton
to Pekin. The stanzas referred to a dream which the man-
darin is said t(5 have had under the hospitable roof of the
friars, and in which he saw a priest worshipping him, and
presenting him with cakes of rice-flour. Next morning, as he
was preparing to resume his journey, a priest came towards
him, bearing in his hand a tray covered with cakes of rice-
flour. He was at once reminded of his dream, and he asked
the priest to whom he w^as going to present the cakes. The
latter replied that he was on his way to place them upon the

IV.] l^ElJlilUX.— BUDDJIIS.M. i:U

altar iu honour of a monk who tlourished two hundred years
before, and was canonized after death. The mandarin having
summoned the friars into his presence related his dream, and
asked the interpretation of it. It was not far to seek. Strong
believers in the doctrine of metempsychosis, the priests at once
concluded that tlie mandarin was no other than the famous
monk, who had returned to eartli as a political ruler of the
people.

Of the Jade Stone Flower Monastery, M'hich is in the city
of Yang-chow Foo, in the province of Kiangsoo, I was told
a singular legend. About thirteen hundred years ago, a very
extraordinary llower^so the story runs — bloomed in the
garden of a house in Yang-chow ; and the Emperor Yung-
kwang hearing of the marvel, proceeded to the city to inspect it.
The journey was rather long, and when his majesty travelled by
water, his barge was drawn by men and women in fine clothing ;
and, when he rode, the team of his carriage consisted of human
beings not less imposingly arrayed. The house was fitted up
as a temporary palace for his convenience, and attracted by the
singular beauty of the flower, which he daily inspected, the
emperor resided for some time at Yang-chow. Eventually,
however, feeling that his health was declining, he set out for
Lok-yang, his capital — a city in the province of Honan. He
died en route, and the palace was converted into a monastery,
and called Koong-wah-koon, or Jade Stone Flower Monastery,
Although it was in a very ruined state when I visited ir, I was
kindly received by a few Buddhist monks, wdio informed me
that the flower had long since passed to the AYestern Paradise,
there to bloom in the vigour of immortal youth.

The Buddhist nunneries in China are very numerous. The
small nunneries contain from ten to twenty imnates, while in
others there are u})\vards of eighty nuns. They are supported
by funds arising from endowments of houses or lauds. Aspirants
are received into the nunneries at the early age of ten, and
their novitiate continues until they have attained their sixteenth
year. At this period the female mind is considered as mature,
and they are called upon " to take the veil." The ceremony
consists in the candidate making a decliiration in the presence

K 2

l:i-2 CHINA. ■ [cHAi'.

of the idol of Koon-Yam, the Goddess of Mercy, that she will

maintain a state of perpetual virginity, that she will neither eat

fish, nor flesh, nor fowl, that she will drink no wine, and that

she will endeavour to obey and carry out in her daily life the

tenets embodied in the religion of Buddha. This declaration

having been made in the presence of the idol of Koon-Yam, and

in the hearing of witnesses, the head of the young lady, which

has been kept partially shaved since the day she entered the

nunnery, is entirely shaved by a female attendant, and she

is attired in robes bearing a striking- resemblance to those

worn by the monks of the sect. The costume of a nun

resembles that of a monk so closely, that a foreigner experiences

no small difficulty in distinguishing the one from the other.

Although it is usual for candidates for the sisterhood to enter

the convents at ten, tliere are many who have recourse to this

life of retirement at much more advanced periods of life. The

great majority of the women are from the lower ranks. All

classes of society, however, are represented in the cloister.

Female members of wealthy families are .occasionally induced to

go there to avoid unwelcome matrimonial alliances. Each

nunnery is presided over by a lady abbess, who is called in

Chinese Sze-Foo. The office is held for life. The duties of the

nuns consist principally in offering up prayers and masses

to Koon-Yam, in behalf of the spirits of deceased women. For

this purpose they go generally in a party of nine to the house

of the deceased, and having taken up their position before the

altar prepared for the occasion, and behind which is a small idol

of Koon-Yam, they chant prayers all day long. In the absence

of all such engagements, they spend their time at the nunneries

in a most indolent w^ay, lounging about as if utterly devoid

of energy. This at all events is my conclusion after visiting

several such establishments. The observation applies with

greater force to the senior nuns, as the younger and poorer

sisters embroider silk, in order to enable them to command more

of the common necessaries of life, than the small portion of the

endowment fund allotted to them places at their disposal. At

the celebration of the Chinese New Year festivals in 1860, I saw

a party of nuns at a pic-nic in the pleasure grounds attached to

IV.] RELIGION.— BlJDDllJSM. 133

one of the principal temples at Canton, and the zeal with which
they entered into a little recreation could not have been sur-
passed by a bevy of school-girls holiday-making- in the green
fields of merry Englantl,

The Buddhist nunneries have not esca|)ed from the grave
charges to which I referred when treating of Taouist institutions
of this kind. In proof this I may make an extract from the
columns of the Ilong-kong Daily Press of Friday, Septend)er
i;3th, 1872.

" It seems," says the correspondent from whose letter I quote,
" that the Buddhist and Tauist nunneries in China are no purer
than their sister institutions in Europe. Those in Wu-chang,
at any rate, have been accused of corrupting the morals of the
people, and a virtuous (?) mandarin hearing what was goiiig on,
has pounced upon the nuns, and nearly put an end to their
order.

" The news at first created great commotion in the temples,
and many of the inmates escaped — especially those of the Tauist
sect who had only to undo their hair, change their dress, put on
ear-rings, and the disguise was complete. It was not so easy,
however, for the Buddhist nun, with her shaven head, to elude
the search of the yamen runners, probaljly having, also, too
little money to offer as a bribe. Some twenty of them, with a
few notorious Tauist ladies, were taken into custody. They
were nearly all young, their ages ranging between eight and
twenty-six. This mandarin afterwards issued a proclamation,
stating in a general way that the bad repute of the nunneries
had necessitated his taking this decided step, and calling upon
the relatives of those whose names were a})pended to come and
take the girls- home ; otherwise they would be handed over to
any eligible parties who might wish to have a wife."

LAMAIS.M.

About 350 years after Buddhism was officially recognized in
China, it was introduced into Thibet, and thence, in course of
time, spread to jNIongolia and Mantchuria, Avhere it still
flourishes under the nanu) of Lamaism. The lamas or priests
acknowledge as their spiritual head the Grand Lama of Thibet,
w^ho is to them what the Pope of liome is to the priests of the
Latin Church. This pope of Lamaism is the political as well as
spiritual ruler of Thibet, and is subordinate to the Emperor of

134 CHINA. [chap.

China only. The present ruler has invarialjly and decidedly
opposed all European travellers entering his kingdom ; and,
during my stay at Pekin in the spring of 1865, he sent a de-
spatch to the Emperor of China, requesting his imperial majesty
on no account to sanction the departure of Europeans from
China en route to Thibet, and assigning as a reason that on the
last occasion the crops had failed, cattle had become barren, and
women had turned aside from the paths of virtue.

xThe lamas are chosen from all classes in society, and in
]\Iongolia each family in wliich there are two or more sons is
obliged to dedicate one to the service of Lamaism. Like their
confreres in China, each lama is a celibate, and shaves his head.
His dress consists of a long yellow robe. This is bound round
the waist by a girdle to which is attached a fan case, and, some-
times a case containing a spoon, a knife, a pair of chop sticks,
and a brazen Avine cup. When conducting tlie public services
of their temples, the lamas wear cloaks and caps of the same
colour as tlieir robes, the cap somewhat resembling the helmet
conspicuous in our representations of Britannia. Upon enter-
ing the temples to celebrate public worship, the lamas are
received at the door by the chief priests. During prayer they
sit in Turkish fashion, with their legs tucked under them, upon
long low ottomans arranged on each side of the hall by which
tlie high altar is approached. Their prayers invoke the bless-
ing of the idols of the sect upon the emperor, the priesthood,
and the state. They are intoned, and, in some cases, are so
well rendered as to remind Europeans of the cathedral services
daily celebrated in Christian lands. In some instances, this is
done to the blowing of horns and shells, and the clapping of
hands. A very singular musical instrument is also used, con-
sisting of a human thigh bone hollowed out and converted into
a musical pipe. Whilst the lamas are engaged in public prayers,
the chief priests, who on such occasions wear dark purple robes,
pass along the lines of praying priests, and cense each worshipper.
A'Mien I was at Lama-miou, a market-town in Mongolia, I
witnessed in one of the temples a curious incident. The lamas
who were present, after praying for twenty minutes, were each,
whilst in a sitting posture — the attitude of prayer — presented

IV.] RELIGION.— LAMAISM i;35

with a cup of brick-tea, served up with butter, and of the
coiisisteucy of soup. Before they partook of this beverage,
one of the chief priests, standing in the centre of the temple,
informed them in a loud voice that the tea had been graciously
provided for them by the last will and testament of a good
Mongolian prince, recently deceased, and that they were in duty
bound to pray ibr the repose of his soul. Having drunk the tea,
the ecclesiastics resumed their prayers in good earnest for the
space of twenty minutes. At tlie close, each lama was presented
with a large cake, also ])rovided by the will of the deceased
prince.

Being celibates, the lamas reside in monasteries. In the Ta-fo
cloister whicli I visited at Pekin, I found no fewer than one
thousand inmates. In the town of Lama-miou there are no
fewer than ten thousand monks, and at Ye-hole they are equally
numerous. By way of penance, they not unfrequently leave
their monastic retreats on toilsome pilgrimages to distant
shrines. Such journeys occupy long periods of time, as the
pilgrims not only walk at a very slow pace, but at the end of
every three steps prostrate themselves and perform the Kowtow.
In 1865, a fi-iend of ours met a lama who had left his home on
a pilgrimage to the Woo-tai Shan monastery in the province of
Shen-si, and who informed him that twelve months would
elapse before he reached his journey's end. Many of the lamas,
however, do not reside in monasteries, but lead a nomadic life
on the vast plains of Mongolia, acting not only as priests in
their respective encampments, but as shepherds. They often sug-
gested to my mind shepherds who, of old, w^atched their flocks
and herds in the valleys of Judtea. Thus Moses kept the flock
of Jethro, his father-in-law, a priest of Midian. The tw-elve
natriarchs were also shepherds, and David was called from
leading his father's sheep to contend with the formidable giant
of Gath. In some cases, I observed the ladies of Mongolian
families tending the flocks, and there are several passages in
Holy Writ,^ wliich indicate that in ancient Palestine work of
this kind not unfrecjuently devolved on the daughters of emirs
or chieftains. I looked in vain, however, amid so much that

^ The passages I allude to arc Gen. .xxiv. 17, 20 ; xxix. 9 ; Exodus ii. 10.

13(; CHINA. ' [chap.

reminded nie of what I had read of patriarchal times, for
" towers of the flock," as those structures from which the
approach of an enemy might be discovered, are termed in Scrip-
ture. Once, indeed, I saw at a considerable distance what
appeared to be a tower of this kind, but on advancing a couple
of miles towards it, I discovered it to be a lama temple.

Lama temples are, as a rule, very imposing. Amongst the
most noticeable are those which were built at Ye-hole, by the
Emperor Kien-lung Wong. One of these has a copper dome,
which, being highly burnished, is of dazzling brightness when
the sun shines upon it, and has the appearance of gold. When
I visited the temple of Lama-miou, and while standing in the
principal shrine, inspecting more especially the eight or ten
large, yellow satin umbrellas, and banners of the same material
upon which were representations of Buddha, I was accosted by
one of the priests. In the course of an interesting conversation
he informed me that there resided in the town, a lama able
to predict with perfect accuracy every event which was destined
to occur throughout the course of the ensuing five hundred
years. It was also in the power of this prophetic lama to call to
mind every event of the past five hundred years. I was most
anxious for an interview, but his engagements Avere so numerous
as to preclude the possibility. In the Ta-fo temple at Pekin,
there is an idol — said to have been brought from Siam — which
is seventy feet high ; and, as a rule, the idols in lama temples
are larger than those in the Buddhist temples throughout the
empire. On the altar of this colossal idol are placed incense
burners, candlesticks, and stands for flowers. Such vessels are
made of zinc or copper, or of marble. In addition, a singular
vessel wliich consists of the upper portion of a human skull,
lined with gold, or silver, or copper, and filled with precious
articled, may be sometimes seen upon altars. The skull is either
that of one who has been distinguished for his abilities, or of a
youth who has died in his eighteenth or nineteenth year — an
age which is regarded with peculiar reverence by the Mon-
golians. At the gates of many of the temples are prayer
wheels. On each wheel a prayer is recorded, and the votary
who is passing by, or who is unable to remain in the temple

IV.] IIELIUJON.— .MUIIA.MMKDAXIS.M. 137

until the service is concluded, repeats once the prayer which he
is about to set in motion, and then turns the wheel and goes his
way. The wheel is supposed to waft the prayer to heaven
and the petition is considered to be repeated, as often as it
revolves. Another feature of the courtyards of monasteries is
the prayer-pillars. These consist of stone pillars upon which
are engraven prayers to Buddha. They are placed in the court-
yards of the monasteries, so that monks may be induced as they
walk to and fro, to pause and engage in devotion. Tiiey are
often elaborately carved.

It has often been remarked that Buddhism — especially
Lamaism— has many external points of resemblance to lioman
Catholicism. The many Christian forms and ceremonies which
were pressed into the service of paganism by the priests of Thi-
bet, were probably derived from Nestorian and Roman Catholic
missionaries who laboured in Central Asia. Indeed, tlie whole
system of Lamaism seems to have been re-organized on that of
the Eoman Catholic Clnirch, and this pagan worship is said not
only to have its pojje, its cardinals, and its bishops, Ijut infant
baptism, confirmation, litanies, processions, services with double
choirs, masses for the living and the dead, the worship of saints,
exorcisms, and fast days ; in addition to Avhich may be men-
tioned the use of the cross, the mitre, the dalmatica, the cope,
chaplets and rosaries, holy water, flower-stands on the altar,
and so forth. I am unable to speak Avith certainty on all these
points, but it has been asserted that they are to be found in the
Buddhist church of Thibet. Prom Thibet many of these cere-
monies found their way into China, but they are much less
numerous in the culhis of the Buddhist priests of the Empire,
than in that of the lamas of Thibet, Mongolia, and Mantchuria.

:\I0I1AMMEI)AXISM.

Confucianism, Taouism, and Buddhism are not the only re-
ligions of human origin which have obtained a locus standi in
the empire. AMthin six hundred years after the religion of
Buddha had been established in China by the Emperor Mingti,
an Arab, called Wos-Kassin — supposed to have been a maternal

138 CHINA. [cHAF.

uncle of Mohammed — introduced into the "central flowery
land" the faith of Islam. This apostle of Mohammedanism,
together with a chosen band of followers, arrived in China in
the seventh century, and proceeded to disseminate that strange
system of falsity to which its founder gave such vitality, by con-
stituting himself the relentless antagonist of idolatry, and the un-
compromising promulgator of the doctrine of the unapproachable
supremacy and perfect oneness of God. Its converts — who are
not drawn from the ranks of the poorer classes only, but include
a great number of the wealthy and respectable — are to be found
especially in the northern, southern, and western provinces of
the empire. In the northern and western provinces they are
very numerous, whole villages being occupied by them alone.
During the campaign in the North in 1860, the Moslem soldiers
in the Indian regiments which were sent to China found many
warm friends among their Chinese co-religionists, between
whom and themselves theie was the powerful bond of hostility
to idolaters. The Chinese Mohammedans are by no means dis-
obedient to the injunctions of their prophet, which impress
upon them the sacred duty of warring against the enemies of
the faith. They are perpetually at war with the government of
the country. In 18G3, the Mohammedans living in the North
of China were in a state of open revolt, and spread ruin
and devastation on every side. So formidable did they prove
that the Governor-General of Canton, Lew Tchang-yu, who,
as Governor of Kwang-si, had acquired a reputation for great
military genius, was summoned to Pekin to take command of
the army, which had hitherto proved unsuccessful against the
]\Iosleni rebels. In the same year a commissioner, named Salin,
arrived at Canton to obtain funds for the maintenance of an
army engaged in suppressing a similar uprising by the ]\Ioham-
medans in the western province of Yunnan.

Although the Chinese Mohammedans have for centuries been
separated from their co-religionists of other climes, they hold
with much tenacity the doctrines which Mahomet taught.
They invariably represent God as the Supreme Eternal Being,
before all worlds, neither begotten nor made, and maintain that
there is none like Him. They acknowledge their belief in the

iv.l UELKIIOX.— M(JIIAM.MK1)AXISM. 13!)

existence of angels, and describe tliem as Leings of absolute
purity, variously occupied in the service of tlieir Creator. Four
of the angelic host who serve God day and night, they hold in
especial reverence, namely, Gabriel, the minister of revelations ;
Michael, the guardian angel of God's ancient people Israel ;
Azrael, the messenger of death ; and Israfael, to whom it has
been deputed to summon all men, the quick and the dead alike,
that, in the presence of God, they may give an account of the
deeds done in the body. Two angels are supposed by them
to accompany every man in the journey of life, to note his
various actions, and report them fully to the Supreme Being.
They are taught by the Koran to look upon the Paradise of God
as a region within which provision will be made for the in-
dulgence of those "fleshly lusts, which war against the soul;"
and in speaking with Mussulmans of a future state of rest, it
is easy to discover that the notions which they entertain with
regard to it are of a very sensual nature. They hold, of course,
that Mohammed is the chief of all the prophets whom God has
sent ; and the number of these is not less than 224,000.

In the practice of the duties enjoined by their religion, the
]\[ohammedans of China appear to be quite as strict as those
whom I have seen in Egj'pt and other countries. They pray
five times a day — a duty which is not considered obligatory
by all Mohammedans, many of whom only pray thrice a day.
They worship with their face toward the huly city of Mecca,
with tlie usual genuflections. When they are going to read the
Koran, they wash their hands before they presume to handle
the sacred book. Every Friday — the Mohammedan Sabbath —
they resort in large numbers to the mosques. When engaged in
the worship of the sanctuary they wear a long white robe, and
a turban of the same colour. Before entering the mosque they
take their shoes off, but they do not, like thu Arabs, carry
them into the temple, holding them in the left hand, sole to
sole. Women and youths are excluded from their congre-
gations, and the men maintain the utmost gravity of demean-
our during the service. So soon as prayers are over, they
return to their ordinary occupations. On one occasion finding
myself on a Friday in Chan-chu-kow — an influential town

140 CHINA. ■ [chap.

situated at the base of the Great Wall of China — I went to
see its mosque, a spacious and not inelegant building, which
commands an extensive view of tlie city. In its courtyard was
a very well-dressed, handsome youth of fourteen or fifteen years
of age, who, in answer to my question why he waited outside
instead of joining the worshippers, informed me that he was
under the prescribed age. The mosque inside was literally
crov/ded with votaries, the best-dressed Chinese I ever saw.
The Koran was preached by a priest, leaning, as is the custom,
upon the top of his staff — as Jacob " worshipped, leaning on
the top of his staff."

The stated seasons for fastinir, are observed by Chinese Mus-
sulmans with apparent strictness. Daring the Kamadan, which
is the nintli month, they appear to spend the greater portion
of the time within the walls of their mosques ; and the attenu-
ated appearance of many of them is a very good proof that
their abstinence has been genuine. Tlie duties of almsgiving,
and of abstinence from all intoxicating wines, and from swine's
flesh, are strictly observed by them at other times also. A Chinese
author, noticing this abstinence from wines and certain meats,
and also Moslem alms-deeds and kindnesses to dumb animals,
accuses the followers of jNIohammed of having borrowed these
features of their religion from Buddhism — -an accusation which
Mohammedans indignantly repel. Of alms they give apparently
very liberally every Friday. As a rule, however, their alms are
bestowed only upon the poor of their own sect. When at Chan-
chu-kow I observed several Mohammedan gentlemen dispensing
alms to the poor and indigent followers of the prophet at one of
the halls or guilds of the sect. The names of the poor pensioners
were recorded on a large board on tlie walls of the guild, and as
each was called by a secretary, he responded, and received his
usual portion. The rite of circumcision is scrupulously observed,
nor are they forgetful of a duty said to be incumbent upon every
good Moslem— the performance of a pilgrimage to Mecca to
touch the black stone of the Kaaba, to obtain the pardon of their
sins and an entrance into Paradise. The pilgrimage to Mecca is
naturally easier to the Mohammedans of the vi^estern provinces of
the empire, than to those in the northern and southern provinces.

IV.] RELKJ ION.— MOHAMMEDANISM. 141

They possess numerous mosques throughout the empire.
These edifices bear a great resemblance to otlier Chinese temples.
In Canton there are no fewer than four mosques, two of which
were built by Wos-Kassin. A very ancient tomb in a mosque
situated beyond the great North Gate, contains the remains of
this zealous propagator of Mohammedan tenets, who, after a resi-
dence of fifteen years in the land of his ado])tion, died in the full
assurance of entering that Paradise which Mohammed had devised.
The mosque, which is situated in the old city of Canton, is dis-
tinguished by a tower, which was built in order tliat the muezzins
might summon the Moslem population to prayers. The door-
way of the tower is now blocked up by soil, which has been
allowed to accumulate around the entire base. When the city
was in the occupation of the allit^d armies of England and
France, some of the British officers made an aperture in the
wall, and finding a spiral staircase, they succeeded in reaching
the top. From the worn appearance of the steps it was con-
cluded that the rnuezzins must have been very regular in the
discharge of their duties.

In one or two of the mosques of this city there are apart-
ments in which are lodged stranger Mohammedans who have
found their way to the busy marts of Canton. In the mosque
near the Taiping Gate, which is best adapted for the reception
of visitors, I have met with Moslem merchants from the
provinces of Sze-chuen, Yunnan, and Kwang-si. I found these
]\Iohammedans more intelligent than those of Canton, and
evidently much more earnest in their devotion to the precepts of
Mohammed.

Some of the mosques present a very imposing appearance.
That which stands in the city of Chin-kiang is, perhaps, par-
ticularly noteworthy. It is supported by arches, and resembles
very much the crypt of a Christian church. This structure,
together with a sclioolroom, is inclosed by a high wall, and in
conseqtience looks somewhat like an encampment. The mosque
in the city of Hang-chow is very grand and imposing, and the
entrance-doors resemble a Cairene gate. In each mosque there
is placed a tablet on which is written in large characters of
gold, "May the emperor reign ten thousand years!" In each

142 CHINA. ^ [chap. iv.

Buddhist or Taouist monastery a similar tablet is placed upon
the high altar. The emperor is evidently determined that the
people shall learn that to him, the son of heaven, as well as to
the gods, allegiance and homage are due. To each of the
principal mosques a school is attached, in which the children are
tauuht to read the Koran in the original tongue.

CHAPTER V.

POPULAK GODS AND GODDESSES.

Any exposition of the religious systems of the Ciiinese which
did not give some account of the gods and goddesses whom the
people delight to honour, would be extremely incomplete. If
the Chinese do not trouble themselves much about religious
doctrines, they are very much interested in the canonized mortals
and imaginary beings whom they suppose to dispense the blessings
and the ills of life. Their religion is essentially a ciiltus. The
worshipper who kneels at the shrine of Confucius will also
worship the Taouistical Pak-te ; and, on special occasions, Taouist
and Buddhist priests may be seen praying in the same national
temple. " Like master, like man," is a proverb which is capable
of being applied to a nation and its gods, and this chapter about
the gods and goddesses of the Chinese may help the reader to
understand the people.

In China the military and the learned classes divide between
them the honours and emoluments of the state, and Kwan-te,
the god of war, and Man-chang, the god of learning, have their
votaries everywhere. Kwan-te, a distinguislied general in tlie
third year of the Christian era, was not canonized until nearly
eight hundred years after his death. Now he has a state temple
in every provincial, prefectoral, and district city of the empire ;
and, morning and evening, in almost every liouse, adoration is
paid before the representation of him whicli stands on the
ancestral altar, lie is regarded as the protector of the peace of
the empire, and of its multitudinous families. The immediate

144 CHINA. [chap.

occasion of his being canonized is said to liave been the drying
up of the large and numerous salt-wells in the province of
Shansi. This calamity was a cause of great perplexity and
distress. The ministers of the Emperor Chin-tsung, like the
magicians whom Pharaoh summoned to read his dreams, were
helpless, and in his perplexity Chin-tsung turned to the Arch-
Abbot of the Taouists, who declared that the wells had been
dried up by an evil spirit. An appeal must therefore be made
to Kwan-te, who now reigned as a king in the world of spirits.
The emperor straightway wrote a despatch to Kwan-te on the
sul)ject of his conversation with the Arch- Abbot, and the
Imperial communication was conveyed to the departed warrior
in the flames of a sacred fire. An hour had scarcely elapsed,
when Kwan-te appeared in mid -heaven riding on his red-coloured
charger. The god declared that until a temple had been erected
in his honour, the petition of the emperor could not be attended
to. A temple was accordingly erected with much haste, and so
soon as the top-stone had been placed, the salt wells again
yielded their supplies. It is said that Kwan-te appeared in
1855 to the generalissimo of the Imperial forces, whom he
enabled to defeat the rebels near Nankin. For this interposi-
tion, the Emperor Hien-fung placed him on a footing with Con-
fucius, who had been regarded till then as the principal deity in
the national Pantheon. In the porch of the state temple of
Kwan-te, at Canton — one of the finest temples in the city — is a
figure of the red horse of the god, beside which stands the
figure of a stalwait armour-bearer, as if waiting to receive the
commands of his master. Even armour-bearer and horse have
their votaries ; and in the large town of Cum-lee-hoi in the
silk districts of Kwang-tung, I saw women worshipping these
images, and binding small bags or purses to the bridle rein of
the charger.

Man-chang is especially worshipped by collegians and school-
boys. He is supposed to record their names in a book of re-
membrance, and to inscribe op]'»osite each name the character of
the individual. In front of his idols there is generally an angel
bearing this l)ook of remembrance in his hand. He was famous
for his great literarv attainments, and his love of virtue. It is

v.] MAN-CHANG. 145

recorded of him, as of many other Chinese sages, that liis
parents were very old when he was born ; and one of his grand-
fathers was the emperor who invented the bow and arrow.
While a mere boy Man-chang mastered the most profound works
without the aid of a teacher; and when he died, tlie gods in
conclave called upon him to be the tutelary deity of aspirants
to literary distinction. In all the principal cities of the empire
there are state temples ^ in honour of this god. In Canton there
are no fewer than ten. The offerings presented to Man-chang
are bundles of onions, and sometimes his altars are covered with
bunches of these too odorous bulbs. His votaries are not con-
fined to students, and I have seen persons of both sexes, and of
all ranks of life among them. On one occasion I ventured to
ask a man who with his wife had been engaged in earnest
prayer to this god, what blessings he sought. He replied that he
and his wife were desirous that their children should become
well versed in classical literature, and so be qualified to hold
high political positions. His most important temple is at Chu-
toong-yuiie, the principal city of the district in which Man-
chang was born. On one of the beams which support the roof
is a brazen eagle, from the 1)111 of which a long cord hangs in
front of the altar. Attached to the cord is a pencil with ^^■hicll
the deity is supposed to write mystic scrolls on a table covered
with sand, or, as others say, upon sheets of paper placed on the
table. These written oracles, the productions of a crafty priest-
hood, are generally announcements of impending calamities, and
are forwarded to the authorities in order that they may adopt
precautionary measures. In 1853, when Ivwang-tung was over-
run with rel)els, a communication of this nature was forwarded
to the governor-general of the province. It called upon the
people to eschew rebellion as one of the greatest crimes, and
Yeh, who was then governor-general, embodied the oracle in a
proclamation, which was posted in the crowded thoroughfares of
Canton and its suburbs.

As might be expected, where so much depends on the recur-
rence of rain, one of the most prominent of the deities who

^ These temples, like those in honour of Kwan-te, are reserved for the worship
of government ofticinls.

VOL. I. 7. .

14(j CHINA. [chap.

preside over nature in her various functions, is Lung Wong, the
Dragon King, in whose keeping are the " fountains of the deep."
Formerly he was only worshipped in seasons of drought, but, in
consequence of mercies vouchsafed to the Cantonese, he is now
included in the list of those who are worshipped at the vernal
equinox and the Avinter solstice.^ In seasons of drought, the
intercessory service generally extends over three days. When
the god fails to hear the district ruler, the prefect supplicates
him. A proclamation is issued, calling upon the people to eat
neither fish, llesh, nor fowl, until a favourable answer has come.
The proclamation is supplemented by an edict forbidding fish-
mongers, butchers, and poulterers to sell to the people. As the
drought is not a matter of immediate consequence to them, the
fishmongers, butchers, and poulterers, show their respect for the
edict by bribing the petty mandarins and police. If Lung Wong-
will not hear the prefect, the governor-general beseeches him.
In this case, the ceremony is invested with unusual solenmity.
Having attired himself in sackcloth, and bound his neck witli
chains, and his ankles with fetters, in sign of deep humility and
penitence, the governor-general proceeds to the temple, accom-
panied by a long train of sorrowing citizens. Four small banners
of yellow silk upon which are inscribed respectively the Chinese
characters for Wind, Eain, Thunder, and Lightning, are borne
at the head of the procession, and then placed in an incense
burner upon the altar, surrounded by a number of lighted
tapers. After a variety of genuflections, the governor-general
consigns a written prayer, addressed to Lung Wong, to the flames
of a sacred fire. This ceremony is followed by a salvo of fire
crackers, the beating of gongs, and the clanging of cymbals,
amidst the din of whicli the governor-general retires, and is
escorted by the citizens to the gates of his palace. Should re-
freshing showers fail to follow these appeals, the people conclude
that the god is asleep, and to rouse him from his slumbo'S, they
remove him from his throne, and expose him for a time to the
burning rays of the sun. It is also usual for the emperor to
command the Arch-Abbot of Taouism, whose residence is in the

^ Lung Wong is woisbippe.l as well on tlie tirst and fifteenth daj- of each lunai-
month, when sacrifices of a sheep, a pig, and fowls are ofl'ered to him.

v.] LUNG WONG. 147

Dragon and Tiger luounlaius of Kiaiigsi, to pray for rain-
Should the prayer prove ineffectual, the Arch-Abbot's salary,
which is paid out of the Imperial treasury, is generally with-
held.

The amount of misdirected energy which the Chinese oflicially
spend upon this r)ragon King is sometliing wonderful; and a
very singular illustration of the melancholy absurdities and
extravagances in which idolatry delights, was afforded in
Canton on the occasion of a drought upwards of thirty years
ago. The governor-general of the province, having in vain
observed the prescribed forms of prayer and fasting, issued a
proclamation, calling upon the wise men of the province to
devise some means by which the deity might be made pro-
pitious, promising a large pecuniary reward to the person whose
scheme should prove successful. Strange to say, none of the
geomancers and fortune-tellers came forward. One of the priests
of the sect of Taou, however, offered his services. He was sup-
ported by his confHres, and the invocation of Lung Wong was
begun ill front of an altar erected in the open air. The priests
interceded for four days in succession ; but, alas ! the deity still
continued inexorable. Finding his efforts of no avail, the priest
decamped by night and, it is said, eventually died from tlie
effects of fever brought on by exposure to the sun during his
four days of prayer. Meanwhile the drought continued, and the
price of grain rose to an unprecedented figure. At this crisis
a geomancer came forward, and obtained the sanction of the
Viceroy to the following ridiculous arrangements for propitiat-
ing the Dragon King. After having closed the south gate of
the city — a device usually resorted to in such emergencies — he
placed under it several water tubs, filled to tlie brim, and con-
taining frogs. A number of boys were then ordered by the
soothsayer to tease the frogs so as to make them croak. In
a few days rain is said to have followed this extraordinary
exhibition of human folly.

On the 7tli of May, 1871, I saw the Mceroy Sue Tai-yan
walk in procession to the temple of this god in Canton, accom-
panied by the officials and leading gentry of the city. Each
person wore undress robes, and carried an incense stick in his

L 2

148 CHINA. [chap.

hand. This he placed on the altar, afterwards performing the
kow-tow. At the close of the observances in which the Viceroy
and other members of the procession took part, a number of
Buddhist and Taouist priests, the former on the right, and the
latter on the left, side of the temple, began to pray with great
earnestness.

The temple to which the emperor resorts on such occasions
is situated at Hae-loong-tang. It is by far the most im-
posing of the temples in honour of the Dragon King which I
visited, and contains apartments for the reception of the em-
peror. I Ibund in it a number of elders, fai-mers, and peasants,
who had come from the neighbouring villages, and had marched
to the temple in procession. Tliey sought to prevail upon tlie
god to grant a few copious showers. Each wore a wreath of
tlie leaves of the weeping willow round his head, and some of
them carried branches of this tree in their hands.

In seasons of drought appeal is sometimes made to Yuh
Hwangte, or the Pearly Emperor, who holds higher rank than
Lung Wong. I once saw a singular procession on an occasion of
this kind, in the neighbourhood of Yan-chan Foo, on the banks
of the Poyang lake. To show the god the parched state of the
earth, and to drive away the spirits which caused the drought,
they carried his idol in an open state chair to the banks of the
lake. In the crowd which followed were two men denuded of
the greater portion of their clothing, and armed with swords.
Sometimes they cut the air with their weapons, as if executing
the vengeance of the god on the evil spirits ; sometimes they
bounded three or four feet from the ground. On the lake was
a boat in which sat the elders of the city, in their best attire,
and holding branches of the weeping willow. Yuh Hwangte
is the canonized son of one of the kings of the Kwong-Yim-
Mew-Lok, and his natal anniversary is one of great rejoicing not
only on the part of the priests of the sect of Taou, but on the
part of the people generally.

Another popular state deity is Shing Wong, or the Protector
of Walled Cities. Eormerly the rank of this god was inferior
to that of a governor-general, an anomaly which curiously illus-
trates the liyiit in which the Chinese regard their o-ods. At

v.] SUING WONG. 140

Canton tliis disparity of rank was marked by the gate of tlie
temple of Sliing Wong being closed, whenever his excellency
the governor-general passed in procession. This ridiculous
custom was abolished by the Emperor Kien-limg, who raised
Shing Wong in the scale of deities ; and now it is incum-
bent upon all governors-general to worship him annually on
th.e second day of the year. His great festival, however, is on
his natal anniversary, namely, the twenty-fourth day of the
seventh month, when the prefect presents a new suit of silk
garments to him in the name of the government. He also
washes the face of the idol, and with his own hands attires it in
the new garments. Sometimes members of wealthy families
seek to recommend themselves to the god by asking to be
allowed to provide these garments. In such a case the donor
sends the suit of clothes to the temple in a gilded chair, a few
days before the anniversary. Numerous attendants accompany
the chair in procession. The worship rendered to Shing Wong
at the celebration of his anniversary takes place at a very early
hour of the morning, and at Canton so anxious are the numerous
worshippers to be present at the ceremony that those wlio
reside beyond the walls of the city take up their quarters in the
temple on the preceding evening. It is a harvest time for pick-
pockets, who practise their art on the sleeping votaries. So
soon as the prefect arrives, generally a little after midnight, the
sleepers are aroused by the beating of gongs. A scene of great
bustle and confusion ensues. The prefect brings Avith him the
jadestone seal of the god, which is always under his care, and
is only produced at this anniversary. Another seal with which
the god is invested, and which is made of copper, always
remains in the temple. Persons who have sick relatives now
hasten into the presence of the god to invoke his blessing, and
to have an impression made by his jadestone seal on the
garments of the sick which they have brought with them.
For this impression they pay a larger sum of money than
for one from the copper seal. The garments so stamped are
conveyed to their sick owners, who are attired in them, in order
that they may be cured of their maladies. Other votaries may
be seen crowding around the altar to buy sheets of yellow paper

150 CHINA. [chap.

on which a few mystic scrolls, also stamped with this seal, have
been written. These sheets are carried away to be placed in
dwelling-houses, which they are said to keep free from all
evil. Others present petitions, calling upon the god to send
some of his spiritual retainers to their houses, to remove evil
spirits from the bodies of sick relatives. In some of the
temples of Shing Wong may be seen implements of torture
by which he is supposed to punish evil spirits. During the
day a portable idol of the god is escorted by the prefect and
his guards through the principal streets of the city. The pro-
cession, which is of great length, is headed by banners and
bands of music, and it occupies so much time in traversing
the numerous narrow streets that business is almost entirely
suspended for the day.

In every temple of this deity there are representations of the
judgments inflicted on the wicked in the ten kingdoms of the
Buddhist hell. The judicial proceedings are represented as
conducted after the manner of criminal trials in Chinese courts
of justice. In each kingdom is a king seated on the throne
of justice, and round him are the officers of the court, with
the ministering attendants. As the punishments which are
represented as being inflicted on the wicked in these ten king-
doms at least throw some light on the workings of the oriental
imagination, I venture to give a resume of them.

The first of the kingdoms is presided over by Tsung-kwong
Wong, and the spirits who are punished before his tribunal are
those of persons wlio have committed suicide ; of priests and
nuns who, having received money for saying masses, have
neglected to do so, and of those who have been guilty of
numberless offences. The spirits of the last-named are made to
ascend a lofty tower from which they gaze into a large mirror
suspended as it were in mid heaven. In tliis they see the forms
of the loathsome beasts, reptiles, and insects which they are
destined to animate when they return to earth. Homicides are
punished like Tantalus, and, in the midst of water, are unable
to quench their thirst. The priests and nuns are confined in a
gloomy chamber named Poo-king-shan. Here by the light of a
dimly-burning lamp, pendent from the roof, they are condemned

v.] THE KINGDOMS OF THE BUDDHIST HELL. 151

to read aloiul the neglected masses printed in very small type.
Suicides are the pi-ey of insatiable hunger and unquenchable
thirst, and, twice dui-ing each mouth, they are supposed to
experience the same agony which attended their acts of self-
destruction. The worship, moreover, which their children pay
to the manes of these wretched beings is intercepted. After
an imprisonment of two years, the spirit of a suicide returns
to the place where the act of self-destruction was connnitted,
in order that it may repent. Should it bring plagues upon the
people in the neighbourhood instead of repenting, it is recalled
to undergo the horrors of a long imprisonment. A spirit which
repents during this incarceration, returns again to the earth in
human form. The spirits of those who have expended sums
in the purchase of obscene publications to secure their destruc-
tion ; or of those who have appreciated so highly the blessing
of a written language as to have traversed the streets, or
employed others to do so, to gather from the pavements and the
walls of dwellings scraps of written paper, so as to prevent any
portion of their written language being trodden under foot of men,
come to this kingdom to receive rewards. Tsung-kwong's natal
anniversary is celebrated on the first day of the second month,
and as the Chinese believe that all who worship him on that
day will be forgiven, its recurrence generally sends many votaries
to prostrate themselves before his mercy-seat.

The second kingdom is supposed to be situated under the
south sea, and is said to be presided over by Cho-kong Wong.
The offenders sent here for punishment, are priests who have
decoyed children from their homes for the purpose of making
monks of them ; husbands wlio have put away their wives under
false pretences; persons who have feloniously disposed of
property intrusted to their care ; men who have injured or
maimed their fellow-creatures by a careless use of firearms or
other weapons ; ignorant physicians who have persisted in pre-
scribing for the sick ; householders who have refused to manumit
their slaves, when the latter were in a position to purchase
manumission, and mandarins who have oppressed the people.
The priests are represented as being thrown into an ice-pond.
The fraudulent trustees are carried into dark clouds, and suffocated

1.02 CHIXA. [chap.

by the sand with which these are impregnated. jMandarins who
oppress the people are confined in cages in which the sufferer
cannot stand upright. After having been tormented in hell for
centuries, the wicked spirits return to the world in the bodies of
reptiles or other loathsome animals. The virtuous who here
receive their rewards, are those who have expended money in
purchasing medicine for the sick poor ; who have given rice to
the indigent and needy ; who have instructed the young and
ignorant ; and who have avoided posting placards on walls, lest
they should fall down, and the characters written or printed on
them be trodden under foot. These virtuous spirits are then
forwarded to the tenth kingdom, whence they return to earth in
bodies of human form to enjoy riches and honours.

The third kiugdom, which is supposed to be underneath the
eastern ocean, is ruled by Sung-ti Wong. This king punishes
ministers of state who have been guilty of ingratitude towards
the emperor ; wives who have been ungrateful to their husbands ;
undutiful sons; disobedient slaves; rebellious soldiers; male-
factors who have escaped from prison ; merchants who have
acted fraudulently towards their partners in trade; men who
have involved their sureties ; geomancers who have given false
opinions with regard to ground selected for houses or tombs ;
ploughmen who have turned up cof&ns, and have neglected to
give them sepulture in other ground; men who have refused
to worship the tombs of their ancestors ; those who have
published pasquinades in which they have Iield up their neigh-
bours to contempt ; scribes who have not properly represented
the ideas of the illiterate who have engaged their services ;
forgers, perjurers, &c., &c.

• The punishments of these offenders vary in degree and
intensity. The bodies of some, are fed upon by tigers, and like
the liver of Prometheus, they are never diminished, though
perpetually devoured. Some are being incessantly pierced with
sharp-pointed arrows ; some are being continually disembowelled,
whilst others are bound to red-hot funnels of brass. These
wretched men return to the earth as monsters. Persons who
have at their own expense erected bridges over rivulets, or paved
highways, are the virtuous who come to this kingdom. These

v.] THE KINGDOMS oF TIIF, r.ri)l»lIIST HELL. 153

are rewanled, and sent to the tentli kingdom in order tl>at tliey
may again return to earth in important positions.

The fourth kingdom is also said to be under the eastern sea.
It is ruled over by Oon-koon Wong. Those come to it who
have not paid their taxes, or their house rents. Physicians wlio
have administered medicines of an inferior quality to their
patients ; silk mercers who have sold bad silk ; persons who
have not given place to the aged or blind in the streets or public
assemblies ; men who have wilfully destroyed grain crops, or
who have removed their neighbour's land-marks ; priests who
have violated monastic rules ; and libidinous persons, drunkards,
^^•horemongers, busybodies, fornicators, gamblers, and brawlers
are also consigned to this place of torment. Some are thrown
into large ponds of blood ; not a few are pounded in mortars ;
and others are suspended from beams supporting the roof of
the hall of torture, by hooks passing throngh the fleshy parts of
the body. The virtuous are those who have provided coffins at
their own expense for the decent interment of the poor. The
souls of the wicked eventually return to the world to animate
beasts, reptiles, and insects, whilst the virtuous return to their
fellow-men to enjoy riches, happiness, and honour.

The fifth kingdom is presided over by Yim-lo Wong, wlio is
said to be inexorable in his dealings with all transgressors.
Those who in the first kingdom were condemned to gaze upon a
vast mirror which revealed the loathsome animals into which
they were to pass, are here compelled to ascend a pagoda, from the
lofty summit of which they behold at one view the scenes of
their birthplace, and all the past delights which arose from
intercourse with their nearest relatives, and with their dearest
friends. With their misery intensified by this view of the
irrevocable past, they descend to the judgment hall to ex-
perience torture in a variety of forms, and when this succession
of agonies has been passed through, they again ascend the
pagoda to view once more the scenes of the past which make
their present intolerable. Besides these, there are in this
region unbelievers in the doctrines of Buddha, backbiters,
slanderers, revilers of good and virtuous men, and incendiaries.
Some are sawn asunder, others are metamorphosed into animals

154 CHINA. [chap.

or birds. Persons who Lave been renowned upon earth for their
ahns-deeds are forwarded by Yim-lo Wong to the tenth king-
dom, where they are highly honoured. As the anniversary of
this king's birth is on the eighth day of the first month,
numerous votaries prostrate themselves before his idol and
make solemn vows that they will amend their ways. A vow
made on this day, is regarded as a sure means of obtaining a
full pardon of all past offences at the hands of Yim-lo Wong.

The sixth kingdom is supposed to be under that portion of
the sea which washes the northern coast of China. It is ruled
over by Pin-shing Wong, who deals out punishment to men who
are always complaining of the seasons ; to sacrilegious thieves
who scrape the gold from idols ; to those who do not respect the
writings of Confucius ; to those who place filth in the vicinity
of temples ; to those who worship the gods, without having first
cleansed the body; to readers of. obscene books; to those who
paint upon chinaware or embroider in silk representations of
the gods or angels, or of the sun, moon, and stars ; to those
who destroy good books, and to those who wantonly waste rice.
The thieves who have scraped the gold from idols, are hanged up
by the hands, and disembowelled ; the destroyers of good books
are hanged up by the feet, and flayed alive ; those who have never
been satisfied with the seasons are sawn asunder, whilst other
offenders are made to kneel, with their knees uncovered, upon
sharp-pointed particles of iron. The virtuous are recompensed,
who have contributed of their substance to funds established
for the erection and endowment of temples.

The seventh kingdom, which is said to be situated under the
north-western ocean, is governed by Ti-shan Wong. Forgers ;
aged men who suck the breasts of women (a custom practised
to some extent in China) ; physicians who make medicine of
human bones, which are found scattered about in large numbers
in Chinese graveyards ; roljbers of tomljs ; women who endeavour
to procure abortion ; schoolmasters who neglect their pupils ;
masters who maltreat their slaves ; oppressors of the poor and
of their neighbours, and those who seek to curry favour with
the wealthy and great, are arraigned before Ti-shan Wong. The
robbers of tombs he commands to be thrown into volcanoes.

v.] THE Krx(;i)():Ms of the buddhist hkli.. 155

The practitioners who haste to be ricli by carrying off the scattered
bones of graveyards, are boiled in oil, whilst others are placed
in the caugiie. It is supposed, however, that persons who have
been guilty of any of these offences can atone for them in this
life, by purchasing birds exposed for sale at a poulterer's shop,
and giving them their freedom ; or by providing coffins for
the decent interment of paupers, who, in the absence of poor-
houses, are occasionally found dying or dead at the corners of
the streets of Chinese cities. The good whom this king re-
compenses, are those who have let blood from their arms or
legs, in order that they may save a sick parent, whose only
chance of recovery the physician has declared to lie in a
medicine of which this forms the principal ingredient.

The eighth kingdom is ruled over by Ping-ting Wong, before
whom those appear who have neglected to support their parents,
or to comfort them when sick, or to celebrate their funeral
obsequies. j\Ien Mdio have proved ungrateful to their bene-
factors, or who have indulged in ol)scene conversation, are also
judged by him. Punishment is inflicted here upon women who
have hung clotlies out to dry upon the house-tops — a proceeding
which the Chinese regard as highly displeasing to departed
spirits, with whose flight through the air it is supposed to inter-
fere. Undutiful sons are metamorphosed into animals or
trampled under the hoofs of horses. Men who have been guilty
of ingratitude, are cut asunder ; the obscene are bound to stakes
and deprived of their tongues ; and housewives who have cared
more for the drying of their " linen " than the comfort of
departed spirits, are plunged into a lake of blood. Persons who
have contributed to the wants of mendicant Buddhist friars are
rewarded here.

In the ninth kingdom, the sceptre of which is swayed by
Too-shu Wong, the transgressors are persons who have been
guilty of arson ; artists who have prostituted their talents by
painting obscene pictures ; priests who have misspent funds
given to them for the benefit of their monasteries ; monks who
have sold to those visiting their monasteries religious tracts
which they ought to have distributed gratuitously ; men who
have killed birds, fishes, fowls, pigs, &c. ; men who have sown

156 CHINA. [chap.

discord between husbands and wives, or between parents and
children ; and those also who have administered aphrodisiacs to
women. The offending priests and monks are thrown upon
sharp spikes ; the destroyers of fowls, pigs, and fishes are
devoured by such creatures ; those wdio have sown discord
between husbands and wives, are speared wath tridents ; those
who have set parents and children at variance, are devoured by
wild beasts ; and those who have given drugs for base purposes,
are gored by sows. The benevolent who have supplied the poor
with hot tea in the cold months of winter, and with cold
tea in the heat of summer, and provided medicine for the
afflicted in times of pestilence, and watermen who have given
free passage in their ferry-boats to the poor, are here rewarded.

The tenth kingdom is that to which all those to wdiom in the
other kingdoms punishments or rewards have been meted out,
are eventually conveyed in order that they may again return
to earth — the virtuous as men of honour and distinction, and
the wicked as beasts, birds, insects, or reptiles.

With the view of impressing upon the minds of the people
the fearful punishments which await the wicked in these ten
kingdoms, symbolical processions are got up in the fourth month
of the year, in many of the towns. In 1865, I saw a large pro-
cession of this kind at Tien-tsin. It consisted of men, boys,
and girls, attired in prison dress, who were led along the streets
by others representing the imps by whom the punishments of
Hades are inflicted. These executioners were dressed in the
most absurd garments, and their faces were concealed by masks
of the most hideous aspect.

Hung-sing Wong, the god of the southern ocean, is another
of the deities receiving state worship who deserves to be men-
tioned. At the great annual celebration of his worship, the
temple in his honour near the mouth of the Canton river, a few
miles below Whampoa, is thronged with votaries. The grounds
in front of it are covered with booths, provided with soups and
viands of all kinds for the crowds of pilgrims who come from all
parts of the province, and the proceedings extend over three
days and three niglits. A temple in his honour which once
stood at a place called Xgan-kong-hoy, in the Xamhoi district,

v.] HUXG-SIXG \\(J}^G. 157

was destroyed by order of the Emperor Kien-lung ; aud the
curious story attached to its destruction is so characteristically
Chiuese, that I venture to relate it. It so happened that in one
of the apartments of the temple, a teacher, of the clan llo, kept
a school. It chanced that in an adjoining room he had placed
a basket in Avhicli were a few grains of rice. A cock, having
found its way into the room, perched upon the edge of the
basket, which fell over and covered it. A^ery much perplexed
by the sudden and mysterious disappearance of the bird, the
owner called upon the god to inform him as to its whereabouts.
The oracular response — so the story goes — was to the effect that
the cociv was in the temple, and eventually it was found in the
basket. The owner at once concluded that the man to whom
the basket belonged had been trying to steal the bird, aud
publicly accused the schoolmaster of being a thief. Naturally,
the false accusation greatly excited the master's anger. In the
course of a few years, it came to pass that he succeeded in
obtaining high literary honours at I*ekin, and this achievement
enabled him to have an interview with the Emperor Kien-lung,
who ascended the throne in 173G. In the course of a con-
versation which took place between the sovereign and his
subject, the latter complained of the grave accusation which
had been brought against him, and begged his majesty to
punish those at whose hands he had suffered the indignity.
The request was granted, and the emperor forthwith ordered
that the temple in which IIo's misfortune had occurred, should
be destroyed.

Upon the destruction of this temple the inhabitants of the
six neighbouring villages, thinking it a disgrace that the idol
should be without a temple, resolved to shelter it in turn in
their respective ancestral halls. Accordingly, on the sixteenth
day of the eighth month of each year, the idol is now taken to
Xgau-kong-hoy by the villagers whose year of guardianship has
expired, and it is there met and borne away amidst great re-
joicings by the villagers in whose ancestral hall it is to be
sheltered during the coming year. Among the villagers wdiose
turn it is to be so favoured, a different person is selected for
every day of the year ; and it is the duty of each person so

158 CHINA. ' [chap.

selected to present offerings of fowls, pork, wine, tea, &c. The
expense of these daily offerings is defrayed by the money which,
on the day of changing the residence of the god and on the two
succeeding days, is received from those wdio attend the dramatic
representations given for the gratification of the holiday-
makers.

The most popular of those deities which do not receive
official worship, is Pih-te or Pak-tai, to use the Cantonese form
of the word, the great god of the north, concerning whom
Chinese mythology has much to say. Existing before the
world, Pak-tai became a chief or supreme director of its des-
tinies. His most remarkable incarnation happened on this wise :
Pak-tai, into whose heart had entered the spirit of the sun,
visited the ancient nation of Tsiug-lok-kwok, and upon the queen
of this people coming into his presence she was overshadowed
by the spirit of the sun, and at the end of the fourteenth
month she gave birth to an avatar or incarnation of Pak-tai.
He was passed from the womb through an incision made under
the left ribs of his mother. At the time of his birth, a cloud of
rich and variegated colours hung over the whole nation ; the air
was impregnated with the most fragrant odours, and earth
spontaneously yielded rare and precious stones. Shortly after
his birth, the child gave proofs of great strength of intellect and
marvellous purity of soul. At the age of seven, he w^as well
versed in various branches of literature. At fifteen, he left his
home, despite the entreaties of his parents, and became a wan-
derer on the mountains. There a heavenly teacher appeared
to him named Yuk-Tsing-Shing-Tsu, by whom he was in-
structed in sacred tenets and doctrines. After five hundred
years' probation he ascended into heaven, seated in a chariot of
nine different colours, and attended by a company of angels
and a calvacade of fair women. He then assumed the name
of Pak-tai.

After this, in consequence of the extreme wickedness of its
inhabitants, the earth was, according to Chinese annals, destroyed
by a deluge in the reign of Yaou, B.C. 2357. Tliis date nearly
corresponds with that at wdiicb, according to our chronology, the
Noachian deluge took place, and many have come to the

v.] PIH-TB. 159

conclusion that it is identical with the deluge referred to in
the Hebrew Scriptures. When the waters, which had risen
until they covered the tops of the highest mountains, had
abated, Pak-tai reappeared on earth for the purpose of eradi-
cating from the hearts of those whom the gods had saved,
and of their descendants the evil which had called down so
fearful a judgment, and of imparting to them that knowledge
of agriculture, and of the arts and sciences which had been
lost. Again, during the Shang dynasty — w^hich ruled over
China from B.C. 1766 to B.C. 1122 — the people once more be-
came wicked, and Pak-tai returned to reform them. His first
measure was to dethrone the reigning house of Shang, and to
establish in its place the dynasty of Chan. He next waged
war against the evil spirit, whose legions are said to have been
assisted by a turtle and a snake, each of great size and of
prodigious strength.

Pak-tai is regarded by the Chinese as one of the most bene-
ficent of deities, and his temples are generally crowded with
votaries. It is usual for all persons embarking in trade to seek
his blessing, and, should their undertaking prove successful, they
place upon the walls of his temple a gilded tablet containing
four Chinese characters expressive of gratitude. On a visit
to one of the principal temples, in 1862, I was much struck
by seeing one of the most intelligent of the Chinese merchants
with whom foreigners are connected, seeking oracular informa-
tion from his idol. He told me he was about to enter upon a
large business transaction w^ith an English merchant, and that
he was praying for the directing care of Pak-tai. It is usual for
partners in trade to draw up at the close of the year, a declara-
tion in vermilion characters on yellow paper to the effect, that
in all business transactions they have been faithful to one
another. This declaration they take to one of the temples of
this god, and, after reading it aloud in the presence of the idol,
they burn it in order that it may be conveyed to the god and
registered. Masters and servants also ratify their agreements
there, and his temple is resorted to for the purpose of taking
oaths or making solemn declarations. This is general in the
case of men who are accused of theft, and wish to declare their

160 CHINA. [cHAr.

innocence. In 1862, I saw in the temple of Pak-tai at Canton
a venerable man who had been brought there by a young man
to make such a declaration. When they had offered prayers
and burned incense, the latter asked liis companion — " Dare you
declare in the presence of the idol that you are not guilty of
stealing my clothes ? " The old man solemnly declared himself
to be quite innocent of the charge, and his accuser appeared
perfectly satisfied with the answer.

Amongst the deities worshipped by the Chinese the Five
Genii also hold a conspicuous place. They preside over what
are regarded as five elemental substances — namely, Fire, Earth,
Water, Metal, and Wood. In the fourth month of each year
they are honoured with sumptuous banquets. Votaries repair
in large numbers to their temples at this season, to thank
these deities for having restored them to health. They appear
in red dresses similar to the dresses of Chinese convicts or
prisoners, with chains round their necks, fetters on their ancles,
and handcutfs on their wrists, in sign of their humility and
unworthiness. These deities are said by the Taouist priests
to heal the sick, as the body of man is composed of the ele-
ments over which they preside. Health or sickness depends
on the just or unjust proportions of the five elements in the
body.

Upon a large altar at the feet of the Five Genii in their
temple in the " Great Market Street " of Canton, are five stones
supposed to be the petrified remains of five rams upon which
these gods rode into the city, each bearing in his hand an ear of
corn. The first is said to have been dressed in white, the
second in yellow, the third in black, the fourth in green, and the
fifth in red. On passing through one of the principal markets
the Genii said. May famine never visit the markets of this
place, and winged their flight through the air. On the plot
where the rams stood were found five stones, which were at
once identified with the rams. In consequence of the sup-
posed visit of the Genii, the city of Canton is sometimes called
the City of IJams, the City of Genii or Angels, and the City
of Grain.

The " Great Bell-Tower "' of the temple contains the largest

v.] 'TIEN- now. 161

bell, I believe, in the south of Chiiia.^ It is, however, never
sounded, as both Tartars and Chinese — the Tartars especially —
believe that upon its being sounded evil will betide the city.
Almost all Chinese bells are without a clapper. In 1865,
whilst Admiral Sir IMichael Seymour was bombarding Canton,
the bell was sounded by a shot from one of the guns of H.M.S.
Encounter. To this, of course, the Chinese attributed the sub-
sequent capture of the city by the allied armies of Great
Britain and France.

Among the goddesses whom the Chinese worship Tien-How,
the Queen of Heaven, occupies a very conspicuous place. This
canonized saint was a native of the province of Fokien, and
a member of tlie clan Lum. Her future greatness was indi-
cated by supernatural events, and before she was a year old
she displayed remarkable precocity. When eleven years old
she expressed a M'ish to enter a Taouist nunnery ; but the
opposition of her parents induced her to continue under their
roof. Her brothers, four in number, were merchants. On one
occasion when they were absent on a trading voyage, she fell
into a deep trance, from which she was roused by the loud lamen-
tations of her parents, who supposed her dead. On recovering
she informed them tliat she had seen her brothers at sea
in the midst of a violent storm. Shortly after, the youngest
son returned home and reported that his eldest brother had
been lost at sea. He stated that during the storm a lady
appeared in mid-heaven, and by means of a rope dragged
the ship into a safe position. While he was relating this,
his sister entered the room, and at once congratulated him
on his escape. She said that she had hastened to the rescue
of her elder brother, but while in the very act of saving
him, she was awakened from her vision by the cries of her
sorrowing parents.

' The largest bell I saw in China was one in a small niouastery not far from
Pekin. It is perhaps one of the largest in the world, and on it in basso
relievo appear several thou.sands of Chinese characters, coustitnting, I believe, a
liiiddhist classic which priests when they retire into seclusion far three years
commit to memory. "With the view of rendering bells lucky, it is customary to
smear them with the blood of some animal— ^a i^uadruped, generally a goat, being
offered in sacrifice.

VOL. I. M

162 CHINA. [chap.

After her death, which took place when she was twenty,
her relatives declared that her spirit returned to the hoiise
once a month. They concluded, therefore, that she had become
a goddess, and erected a temple to her. Her fame soon spread,
and native annals contain various instances of her saving
tempest-tossed crews. So recently as the eighteenth century
she interposed to save an ambassador of the empire ; and she
is also credited wnth having done so during the Sung dynasty,
some seven hundred years before. Her temples, therefore, are
now to be found in all the provinces, and the more honourable
designation of Tien-te-How was bestowed upon her by Taou-
kwang. This goddess is worshipped at all times by numerous
votaries, and especially by fishermen and sailors. The twenty-
third day of the third month, is honoured as her natal anni-
versary ; and state worship is paid to her at the celebration of
the New Year's festivities, and at the equinoxes.

Koon-Yam, the goddess of Mercy, is worshipped with great
pomp on the nineteenth day of the second month, which is the
anniversary of her birth, and also on the anniversaries of lier
death, and canonization. The story of the career of this
canonized Buddhist nun is full of marvels; and it is scarcely
possible to enter her temples witliout finding women and
children in them. On her anniversaries, women resort to
them in large numbers, and light incense sticks at the sacred
lamp above the altar. They carry the burning incense to their
homes, as the smoke is supposed to possess a purifying effect.
Other votaries who have sick relativ^es, expose tea to the smoke
which rises in clouds from the incense burning on the altar. On
their return home they administer the tea to the sick. Koon-
Yam is also much worshipped during the Tsing-Hing or Wor-
shipping of Graves, as she is supposed to extend her protecting
care over the souls of departed ones. Paper clothes, even houses,
servants, and sedan-chairs fashioned of the same material, are
at such a season burnt in front of her altars. The goddess is
supposed to convey these offerings to the departed spirits for
whom they are intended. The ceremony is usually performed
at midnight. At this season, also, ladies resort to her temples
to pray for afflicted husbands or children. The form of worship

v.] KOOX-YAM ^KUM-FA. 1(53

observed on such occasions, is conducted by Buddhist priests.
Two tables are phiced about six feet apart in front of the idol,
and fruits and flowers are arranged upon them as offerings. The
ladies sit or kneel near the tables, and the priests march round
them to slow music. The music quickens, and at last the
priests are found careering round the tables. This absurd service
is brought to a close by the priests rushing wildly towards the
ladies, and tendering them tiieir congratulations.

The temples in honour of the goddess of Mercy are very
numerous throughout the empire. In the most important of
these at Canton were at one time several ornaments of sreat
value which had been presented to the goddess by the emperor
Taou-kwang, in return for blessings which she was supposed to
have conferred on the southern portion of the empire. One of
these was a jadestone ornament of great value, Mhich was pre-
sented in acknowledgment of a victory which the goddess was
supposed to have given to the Chinese troops over the British
barbarians in 1841.

Another goddess who is popular with Chinese wives is
Kum-Fa, the tutelary goddess of women and children. A
native of Canton, she flourished during the reign of Ching-hwa
who ascended the throne a.d. 1465. When a girl of tender
years, she was a constant and regular visitor to all the temples
in her immediate neighbourhood. She is said to have had
the power of communing with the spirits of the departed.
Becoming at length tired of the world, she committed suicide by
drowning. In course of time her body rose to the surface of
the water, and when it was taken out the air became impreg-
nated with sweet-smelling odours. It was placed in a coffin,
and a sandal-wood statue or idol of Kum-Fa rose apparently
from the bed of the river, and remained stationary. A temple
was erected for the image, but an iconoclast deliberately des-
troyed it by fire, and it is now replaced by a clay figure.
Her principal temple stands in the Honam suburb of Canton.
Her votaries are mostly wives who desire to become mothers.
She is the Venus Genitrix of the Chinese. The list of the
duties which her ministering attendants divide among them, is a
perfect r(^sume of the art of rearing children. One is considered

164 CHINA. [chap,

to be tlie guardian of children suffering from small-pox. The
second presides over the ablutions of infants. The third super-
intends the feeding of new-born babes and young children. The
fourth is the especial patroness of male infants. The fifth
attends to the careful preparation of infants' food. The sixth
watches over women labouring with child. It is in the power of
the seventh to bestow upon women wiio have conceived, male or
female children in answer to their prayers. The eighth can bless
women with male offspring. The ninth makes children merry
and joyful. The tenth superintends the cutting of the umbilical
cord. The eleventh causes women to conceive. It is the privi-
lege of the twelfth to make children smile. The thirteenth has
the care of infants until they are able to walk. The fourteenth
teaches them to do so. It is the calling of the fifteenth to
teach them how to suck. The sixteenth watches over un-
born babes. On the seventeenth it devolves to see that their
bodies are, immediately before birth, free from sores or ulcers.
The eighteenth is regarded as the special patroness of female
infants. To impart strength to infants, is the duty of the
nineteenth ; and the twentieth of the attendants of Kum-Fa
is named Fo-shee-fa-fu-yan.

Such of these attendants as have idols are represented as
holding children in their arms, and are not unfrequently wor-
shipped by barren women. The votaries bind string round the
necks of the infants in the arms of these figures. Packages
of tea are exposed for sale in the temples of Kum-Fa, and are
bought by mothers for their sick children. The mother first
presents the tea to the goddess, and then mingles with it the
ashes of the incense sticks which are burning on the altar.

The natal anniversary of Kum-Fa is celebrated with great
rejoicing. In the north of China, this goddess appears to be
more popular than she is in the south,

Chinese idolatry reaches the acme of its absurdity, if not also
of its sinfulness, in the worship which is paid to a canonized
monkey, on whom has been conferred the sounding title of the
" Great Sage of the whole Heavens." Hatched from a boulder,
this animal proclaimed himself the king of the monkeys, and
eventually, learning the language and manners of men, and

THE THREE PURE ONES.

v.] THE GREAT SAGE OF TPIE WHOLE HEAVENS. 165

9

finding himself possessed of supernatural powers, he obtained a
place amongst the gods, notwithstanding their unwillingness to
receive him, and compelled Yuh Hwangte to hestow this title
upon him. An idol of this animal with outstretched hands, as
if in the act of conferring a blessing, stands in the temple of the
Five Genii. It is annually provided with a cap and a silk suit.
Among those who worship it, women who are enceinte and
gamblers are frequently found. Chinese mothers sometimes
actually dedicate their children to its service.

Among their other important deities may be mentioned the
Shay Tseih, to whom, as God of the Land and of the Grain, state
worship is paid twice annually ; and Fung-Fo-Shan, or the
Wind and Fire Gods, who also receive state worship. It may be
added, that in every walled city there are temples called Chung-
lee Sze. These are in honour of Faithful Ministers, and in
them are placed the tablets of those who have distinguished
themselves in the service of the state.

CHAPTER Vr.

EDUCATION AND THE PRESS.

Literary distinctions form the avenue to all posts of honour
and importance in China, and there is perhaps no country in
which education — up to a certain point — is more generally dif-
fused among the male population. The system of competitive
examination, and the fact that literary attainments are necessary
qualifications for the highest political appointments, prove an
immense stimulus to national education. Thus there is little
or no difficulty experienced in prevailing upon Chinese parents
to send their children to school; and, as schools are very
numerous, and the wants of schoolmasters in general of a very
simple nature, the poorest of the people are able to procure for
their children an education which may enable them some day
to rise to eminence. But although the state does so much in
this way to encourage learning, 1 do not think there is any class
of the community educated at its expense, except the sons of
high officers of state, and Mantchurians of noble l)irth, wdio
resort to a national institution established for them at Pekin.
They receive instruction in the Chinese, Mongolian, and Mant-
churian languages ; and when their education is complete, they
are despatched to various parts of the empire to serve as attaches,
until more important offices become vacant for them. Dis-
tinguished students among them are instructed for the astro-
nomical board, the chief duties of which are to inform the em-
peror when an eclipse of the sun or moon is likely to take place.
Education is not confined in China, as is sometimes supposed,

ciiAi'. VI.] EDUCATION OF ^^■O.MI•:\. 1G7

to the stronger sex. On the contrary, in the south of China,
at least, the seminaries for the board and education of young
ladies, presided over by tutors or governesses, are exceedingly
numerous ; and it is not unusual to find private tutors giving
instruction to young ladies in their homes. Some may be dis-
posed to imagine that the education of femabs in China is a
novelty ; but this is so far from being the case that it is common
to find in Cliiuese libraries, books containing biographical notices
of women who, under former dynasties, were renowned for their
great literary attainments. There can be no doubt, however, tliat
education is not nearly so generally diffused among women as it
is among men. Amongst the poorer classes they are ignorant to
a degree, and in the northern provinces female education, to
judge from an interesting letter which I received on the subject,
seems to be almost entirely neglected. Mrs. Collins writes to
me regarding the neglect of female education in the northern
provinces as follows : —

" During my stay at Pi-yuen-sze this spring — 1855 — I was
visited by more than three hundred and twenty women of
various grades in society. Amongst them came a princess of
the imperial family, married to a mandarin of the highest rank
— a coral button ; accompanied by her four daughters — tine-
looking, interesting girls from sixteen to twenty-three years
of age — two-daughters-in-law, a young son, and a number of
female attendants. I inquired if the lady could read, but
received a negative answer, and on asking the same question
of the younger ladies, was met by the usual reply, ' Girls are
not taught in these northern parts.' The mother was a fine,
dignified woman of about fifty years of age, a perfect lady
according to Chinese ideas, with that air of quiet command
which distinguishes Tartar ladies of rank. Amongst all my
visitors, only two women, and those not of high rank, could
read. Last year, out of two hundred and ninety women, tlie
proportion was somewhat larger. Three Tartar ladies and two
Chinese women of lower rank, were readers. The little daughter
of the district magistrate came to see me, and told me that she
read every day with a teacher, who instructetl at the same time
two boys of other families."

As in England, Chinese schools are of two kinds — day-schools
and boarding-schools. The dav-schools are chieflv held in the

168 CHINA. [chap.

atria of temples which are not much frequented, and in the
spare chambers of guilds. Each boy is provided with a desk
and chair, and the desks are arranged so as to prevent the
pupils talking in school hours. In order that the master may
know that the pupils are attending to their studies, they are
made, when committing their lessons to memory, to read aloud.
Thus the din which arises from a Chinese schoolroom appears to
a foreigner more characteristic of a bedlam than a place of study.
There are, also, schools of a superior class, which are attended
by young men of eighteen years of age and upwards. In these
each pupil is provided with a separate apartment, and there is
a common hall, in which the principal delivers lectures on the
Chinese classics. Youths attending schools of this class are
supposed to be preparing for the B.A. examination ; and until
they have taken this degree, they are not entitled to become
members of a university. Other students seek the seclusion of
the country, choosing scenes of romantic beauty for their pursuit
of learning. Students in the south of China frequently resort to
the Sichu mountains, where hermitages, pagodas, and temples,
constructed with great taste, and embosomed in trees of rich
foliage, afford them comfortable retreats.^

Parents send their children to school at the early age of six,
and show great care in the choice of a master. A good teacher
must excel in virtue, as well as in learning and aptitude for
teaching. The anxiety of a Christian parent to have his children

^ The most eligible of these retreats is at the head of a ravine which abuts on
the banks of the Po-yang Lake. It is called the White Deer Grotto, because the
learned sage Choo-foo-tsze, so long ago as the twelfth century, lived in a grotto
near it, with a white deer as his constant companion. Tradition says he used to
send this animal, with a basket tied to its antlers, to the neighbouring village for
provisions. The college has accommodation for two hundred students, but I did
not find more than six or seven in it. The mantle of the learned Choo had
evidently not fallen on the courteous principal, and the few pupils he had, did not
seem to me to be men of promise. Attached to the college is a temple in honour
of Confucius, in which. I was told, the students daily worshipped. Instead of the
usual tablet this temple had an idol of Confucius, although it is known that he
was opposed to idols, and the sage is represented as having a black face. There
were also idols of his distinguished disciples. The retreat is at the base of a
mountain two thousand feet high, and many of the neighboui'ing hills are covered
with fir trees. A mountain torrent, flowing through the ravine, adds to the
romantic beautv of the scene.

VI.] SCHOOLS. 169

made acquainted with tlie truths of revelation, can scarcely be
greater than the earnest desire of a Chinese to have his offspring
thoroughly instructed in the doctrines of the ancient sages.
AVhen choice has been made of a teacher, a mutual friend
generally arranges, in behalf of the parents, the terms of his
remuneration ; and a written agreement is draM'n up. A dinner
is given to the schoolmaster by parents of all classes on the
occasion of their sons becoming pupils ; and in the houses of
the wealthy, theatrical entertainments are given when a school-
master or tutor has been selected for the education of a son.
The boy makes his appearance at school for the first time on a
lucky day,^ selected by a fortune-teller, and he bears a present
of money for his teacher. He is also provided with what is
termed a scholar's visiting card. On entering the school, he
first turns to the shrine of Confucius, with which every school
is provided, and worships the great philosopher. He then
salutes his teacher, and presents his gift and visiting card ; and
when he has been exhorted by the latter as to his duties, is con-
ducted to his desk. Tlie vacations take place at the New Year, and
during the autumn. Schoolboys are, however, frequently called
upon to return home to observe certain religious festivals, such
as worshipping the tombs and the tablets of ancestors, and the
celebration of the birthdays of parents and grandparents. The
boys are very active and full of fun, and in this respect remind
one strongly of English schoolboys. The masters are usually
men who have taken the B.A. degree, but who have failed in
obtaining higher literary distinction. I have, however, met
with men holding the degree of Doctor, who evidently preferred
teaching to a government berth. The Chinese schoolmaster
stands in loco ixirentis to his p'apils, and is a great believer in
the truth of the saying, " Spare the rod, spoil the child." In
every school wliich I visited, and I have visited a great many,
I found the cane ; and both boys and girls are unsparingly
punished for any offence against the rules of propriety or the
regulations of the school. On one of these visits, a friend of

^ No schoolboy goes to school for the first time on the anniversaries of the
death and burial of Confucius ; or on the anniversaries of the death and burial of
Tsong-Kit, the inventor of letters.

170 CHINA. [chap.

mine, a captain in the Eoyal Navy, was with me, and so soon as
the pupils saw his uniform, they rushed from the schooh'oorn
by a back-door, in a panic. They thought that a detachment of
blue-jackets was at hand to march them off; and the school-
master evidently could not help sharing their alarm.

In all schools in the south of China pupils begin with the
trimetrical classic, from which they are advanced to the thousand
character classic, and the young pupil's book of poetry. The
sentences of the first book consist of three characters each, and
are such as may be easily understood and committed to memory.
Although the style is exceedingly simple, the contents are con-
sidered of great importance ; and when the pupil is able to
explain the references which they contain to history, literature,
biography, and zoology, he is considered to have made a great
step in advance. In schools of other provinces, children some-
times begin by committing surnames to memory. The thousand
character classic is formed of a thousand different characters,
those of the same class being grouped together. Each sentence
consists of four characters, and every two sentences form a
rhyming couplet, which makes it easy for the pupil to commit
them to memory. In the book of odes for the young, each
sentence is composed of five characters. The design of this
book is to stimulate pupils to diligence in their studies, in order
that they may secure that passport to power, wealth, and fame
— a great literary reputation. The mind of the pupil is indoc-
trinated with a profound admiration for the wise men of ancient
times, who devoted tliemselves to leading men to the knowledge
and practice of universal goodness ; and thus tauglit from their
youth to regard the works of their great sages as immeasurably
superior to anything that later ages can produce, the literati of
China have themselves originated nothing.

When the pupil has mastered this course of instruction, he
enters upon the study of the four Shoos. I have already''referred
to these in the preceding chapter. The education of the Chinese
may be said to consist principally in the study of moral philo-
sophy, and the fundamental aim of these works may perhaps be
summed up in a few words. It is to teach men to be virtuous
that they may discharge honoui-ably and successfully the

VI.] THE CURHICULUM OF A STUDENT. 171

political and social duties of life. The metaphysical specu-
lations which they contain, lilcc those of the Shoo- King, are
exceedingly crude. The Great Learning and the Doctrine of the
Mean — or the Golden Medium, as Collie has rendered the title
— wore composed respectively by Tsang-foo-tsze and Tsze-sze,
devoted disciples of Confucius, the latter being his grandson.
The fourth of the shoos consists of the works of Mencius, a
vigorous and original thinker, who lived about one hundred
years after Confucius. The government stipulates that at the
various examinations for degrees, the themes or texts for the
candidates' essays shall be taken from the four Shoos ; and the
students commit them to memory and attend lectures upon
them. The lecturers at the universities are promoted according
to the success with wdiich their instructions are attended, and
the desire of promotion proves an incentive to exertion. I
have occasionally visited the upper schools and colleges when
the lecturers have been expounding the doctrines of the sages.
The silence which reigned on these occasions was so great, that
in this respect I might have fancied myself in a Christian
church. Even the servants seemed to suspend their labours for
the time, lest they should disturb the lecturer ; and it is only as
a special favour that any one is permitted to go near the hall
when a lecture is going on. When the student has mastered
the four Shoos, he studies the classic on Filial Piety. This work
is attributed to Coirfucius, and it is said that he informed the
gods of its completion, and that they showed their approval of
it by causing a large rainbow to span the sky, and gradually to
descend towards the earth in the shape of a huge pearl. The
student next enters upon the study of the five King, the
contents of which 1 have briefly described in the preceding
chapter. This course is followed by the study of History and
General Literature ; and in order to master the rules of com-
position, the student familiarizes himself with the essays of
eminent writers. At this stage he is often called upon to dis-
cuss the merits of what he has been reading, with his tutor.
The tutor attacks the reasoning of an essay, and the pupil is
expected to defend it. At the end of this course, he is supposed
to be ready to pass his B.A. examination.

172 CHINA. [chap.

For the B. A., or first degree, examinations are held throughout
the empire twice in every three years, and for the second, or
M.A. degree, examinations are lield once in every three years.
The former take place in the prefectoral cities of each province.
They are held in large halls like the Theatre at Oxford, or
the Senate House at Cambridge. The examiners in each pro-
vince are the district rulers, the prefects, and the Literary
Chancellor. Before going up for their examination, tlie candi-
dates repair to their respective district cities, and deposit at the
office of the district ruler a document signed by one or more of
the gentry of the district. This document sets forth that they
are qualified to attend the examination for the degree of B.A., as
free-born subjects of the realm, and that they do not fall within the
prohibitions which exclude the children of playactors, watermen,
policemen, &c. It also states the candidate's age, and his place
of birth. All taxes due to the government must be paid by
the fathers of the young men, before the latter are admitted as
candidates. On the day of examination, the candidate repairs
at an early hour to the examination-hall of his prefectoral city.
He carries a small basket of a singular shape, containing his pens,
inkstand, and ink, and he purchases from an of&cial the paper
upon which his essays are to be written. The paper is sold to
the students at a gTeatly increased price, and as in one province
alone the candidates sometimes number eight thousand, this
arrangement must bring a considerable sum to the imperial
exchequer. At a certain hour a cannon is fired, and the porter
closes the gates of the hall. Xo one can now enter or leave the
hall until the examination is over. When the students, who
only occupy one side of the long tables, whicli are arranged in
parallel lines, have seated themselves, the themes for the essays
are given out. These, as I have stated, are taken from the four
shoos. When the candidate has written the two essays required
of him, he proceeds to compose a poem of twelve lines, each line
containing five characters. Each candidate then recites, or writes
from memory, a portion of the sacred edict, and at the close of
the day a gun is again fired, and the students are permitted to
retire. Any of the students, however, who are slow writers, are
furnished with lamps to enable them to finish their papers.

VI.] THE B.A. EXAMINATION. 173

The essays are perused by the examiners on the following day,
and the names of the candidates are classified according to
merit. Two or three days after, the list of successfid candidates
is posted on the walls of the hall. Those candidates whose
names do not appear in the list do not attend any of the suc-
ceeding trials, of which there are six or seven. At the second
examination, which is conducted by the prefect and held in an
inner hall of his yamun, only one of the themes is selected
from the four Shoos ; the other is chosen from the five classics.
The successful candidates attend a third examination, conducted
by the literary chancellor. The essay on this occasion is on a
phrase from one of the four Shoos. A poem of twelve lines
is also required, as well as a disquisition on the principles, or
light of Nature. The literary chancellor also conducts the re-
maining four examinations, in which, as in the previous ones, the
candidates write essays and poems. Out of the six or seven
thousand candidates, probably not more than a hundred remain
for the final competition, and of this number not more than sixty
are adriiitted to the degree of B.A. It is sometimes supposed
that because so few candidates are successful, the standard of
literary attainments proposed by government is very high. This,
however, is an error, for whatever number may come forward,
the literary chancellor is not allowed to approve more than sixty
candidates. Those approved present themselves at the yamun of
the literary chancellor, in order to be invested with an order of
merit. This badge is a golden flower which is placed on the apex
of the cap or hat, and is regarded as the gift of the emperor. A
richly-embroidered tippet or collar, corres]>onding to the hood
worn by graduates of English universities, is also placed on the
shoulders. When this ceremony, called Kum-Fa, is over, the
happy candidates are invited to dine with the literary chan-
cellor.

So soon as the list containing the names of the favoured sixty
is published, the rivers and creeks in the vicinity present a most
animated appearance. Boats of light construction may be seen
urged forward in every direction by crews of four or six men,
in order to carry to anxious parents the tidings of their sons'
successes. Men also traverse the streets of towns, informing the

174 CHINA. [chap.

public in stentorian voices, that they have correct lists of tlie
successful candidates for sale. On reaching his home, the newly-
made graduate finds his first few days occupied in paying visits
of ceremony. Notably, he must go to worship at the ancestral
hall of his clan, and the schoolmaster has to be visited. The
graduate rides in a sedan-chair borne by four men, and is
escorted by several of his relatives and friends, also in cliairs.
The procession is lengthened by gilded canopies, under which
are offerings of pork, cakes, fruits, and flowers. Eacli canopy
is borne by four bearers. Musicians and banner-men lead the
way, and when such a procession passes through the streets of
a toM^i, the young graduate is the hero of the hour.

The Bachelors of Arts now become members of universities,
of which there seems to be one in every walled city. At these
they prepare themselves for the M.A. examination. The exami-
nations for this degree are held in provincial capitals only.^
The candidates not unfrequently exceed seven or eight thou-
sand, being all the Bachelors of Arts in the province who may
be disposed to present themselves. The examination is held in
a large hall divided into rows of cells. It is called the Kung-
yuen, and there is one in every provincial capital. Each student
enters a cell, in which he remains by night, as well as by day,
until the examination is over. The rows are distinguished by
different names and the cells are numbered, so that there is no
difficulty in summoning a candidate, should the examiners call for
him. In a square formed by the rows there is a large building
in which the examiners are lodged. These are a body appointed
by the emperor, and two of them are sent from Pekin to each
province. They are men conspicuous by their literary attain-
ments, and the provincial officials receive them with every mark
of honour and respect. On the morning of the sixth day of the
eighth month of every third year, the examiners are escorted by
all the mandarins to the Kung-yuen. The governor-general
on this occasion rides in an open chair borne on the shoulders of

1 There is one exception to this rule. Candidates residing in the island of
Formosa do not require to cross the channel to Foochow, the capital of tlie
])rovince of which Formosa is a jiolitical division. They are examined at the
prefectoral city of Tai-wan.

VI.] Til?: M.A. EXAMINATION. 175

sixteen men. Two days after, the examination is held, and the
students having purchased their paper, go to their cells as their
names are called out by the faiai or governor. Before they
are allowed to enter their cells they are searched for books of
reference. The first examination lasts two days, during which
three essays are written on quotations from the four Shoos ;
and a poem of twelve lines of live feet each. During the second
trial, also lasting two days, five essays are written on themes
from the five classics. At the third trial, five essays are written
on any subjects which the examiners may think fit to propose.
The candidates give their papers to the officers appointed to
receive them. These deliver them to officers who superintend
the copying of them in red ink. Other officials carefully com-
pare the copies which have been made, with the originals, and
paste a sheet of paper over the name of the candidate, which is
written on a blank page. The essays are then distributed among
ten examiners, whose duty it is to decide whether or not the
grammar is correct, and the course of reasoning sound and
logical. Those which they approve, are submitted to the
examiners from Pekin. When the final scrutiny is over, the
names of the successful candidates are unsealed and published
in the order of merit. The student whose name heads the
list, receives the title of Kai-yuen. The new Masters of Arts are
decorated in the governor-general's yamun with a golden
flower, and a tippet or collar more richly-endjroidered than
that which is worn by the B.A. graduates. The ceremony is
followed by a banquet, at which they meet all the important
officials of the .city and neighbourhood. The excitement is,
of course, much greater than on the occasion of a B.A. exami-
nation. The success of the graduate is a matter of rejoicing
not only to his family, but to his clan ; and on the walls of an
ancestral hall are suspended boards containing the names of
those of the clan who have taken this degree. The letter in
which the examiners inform the head of a family of the success
of one of its members, is posted on the walls of his house.
Visits of ceremony and rejoicings, of course, await the graduate
of the second degree on his return home ; and he is escorted by
friends and relatives, attended by banner Jien and musicians, to

176 CHINA. [chap.

the ancestral hall of his clan, in order that he may render
homage to the departed ancestors whose surname he bears.
When these proceedings are over, he begins to make the neces-
sary preparations for a journey to Pekin, in order to pass the
third or Tsin-sze degree. The examination for this invariably
takes place on the sixth day of the third month of the following
year, and is presided over l)y the prime minister and one of the
royal princes, with three other examiners. The proceedings are
similar to those of the other examinations. The successful candi-
dates— the first of whom is styled Hwuy-yuen — do not return to
their respective provinces, but remain at Pekin in order to attend
the examination for the fourth degree, the Han-lin or LL.D.
Their names, however, are forwarded by the government to the
governors of their provinces, and by them to the rulers of their
districts. The district rulers order tablets bearing the names
in gilt letters to be carried in state chairs, with offerings of
various kinds, to the happy parents of the graduates. The
district rulers are generally well rewarded for sending the wel-
come intelligence ; and I remember the parents of a graduate
being so delighted with their son's success that they made a
present of four hundred dollars to one of these officials.

The examination for the degree of Han-lin or LL.D. is con-
ducted in the Imperial Palace at Pekin by the emperor himself.
The test is a written answer to any question which the emperor
may propose. The successful candidates are divided into four
classes. Those of the first class have the degree conferred on
them, and are reserved for important vacancies. Graduates of
the second class become members of the inner council ; tliose of
the third class obtain situations in the six boards, and those of
the fourth become district rulers. The ncNvly-made Han-lin
are entertained at dinner by the emperor, and, as a mark of
great honour, each guest sits at a sepai'ate table, upon which the
most recherche viands are spread. The graduate at the head
of the li.st is called Chwang-yuen, and his reputation extends to
all parts of the empire.- Wandering heralds carry his name to
remote villages as well as populous towns, and both high and
low make a point of l^ecoming acquainted with some particulars
of his family and early training. When he travels, the keepers of

VI.] THE LL.l). KXAMINATION. 177

the various liostelries at wliicli he lodges consider themselves
highly honoured by the presence of so distinguished a visitor.
In 1872, Canton had the honour of Chwang-yuen, and the
most distinguished of the Han-lins for that year entered
the city in state. The Han-lin Hall, in which the degree
of Doctor of Laws is conferred, is in the form of a parallelo-
gram, and on each of the four sides there is a cloister.
Against the walls of the cloisters are placed marble slabs
on wdiich are inscribed the original text of Confucius. In
the centre, under a pavilion, is the throne on w^hich the em-
peror sits when called upon, in the discharge of his imperial
duties, to explain the doctrines of Confucius to his ministers.
When the degree of Doctor of Laws is conferred, the approved
candidates arrange themselves round the throne, and as the name
of each candidate is called, the emperor makes a mark against it
with his vermilion pencil in a list which he has before him.

The essays which are written by the candidates for the various
degrees must contain at least three hundred and sixty characters,
and not more than seven hundred and twenty. ^larginal notes or
corrections may be made to the number of one hundred charac-
ters. The Chinese recognize no fewer than six modes of writing
their characters, and as the essayists are instructed to pay
marked attention to caligraphy, they adopt the Kiai-shoo, wdiich
is the most elegant form of character. The other styles of
writing are the Chuen-shoo, which is "the ancient mode of
writing, and is derived immediately from hieroglyphics, and is
either a caricature or a stiff and imperfectly written character ; "
the Le-shoo, which is "used by officials' attendants, and is
written with greater freedom than that employed in books ; "
the Hing-shoo, which is " the regular running hand in which
anything which requires despatch is written ; " the Tsaou-tsze,
" a hasty and abbreviate " style, used in ordinary transactions
and correspondence ; and the Sung-ti, " the regular form of
the character used in printing." The respect which the
Chinese pay to their written language, amounts almost to vror-
ship. They never lose sight of the fact that it is the medium
through which they have become possessed of the wisdom of the
ancients. The literati e'hiploy men to traverse the streets of towns

VOL. I. N

178 CHINA. • [chap.

and villages, to collect waste paper from dwelling-houses
and shops, lest fragments hearing Cliinese characters should he
trodden under foot. Each man is provided with two baskets,
and at his cry, " Sow-suee-chu," or " spare the printed paper," the
people rush to the doors and empty their waste-paper baskets
into his. When his baskets are full, he takes them to a temple
or guild provided with a furnace for the purpose of consuming
such collections. In many instances, the ashes of this paper are
put into earthenware vases, and flung into a tidal stream that
they may be borne out to sea.

Besides the classics which I have mentioned, the Chinese
have, of course, a numerous array of historical, political, and
philosophical works, and of novels, and romances, and mis".el-
laneous writings. But though they have been a literary nation
from a period long anterior to the Christian era, they have no
public libraries, unless this name can be given to libraries^ re-
served for the especial use of government officials. Although
there are no public libraries for the use of the people, they can-
not complain of the want of public lecturers. In many of the
towns and cities there are men known as Kong-Koo, who take up
their quarters in the halls of temples, and deliver lectures on
the ancient history of China, and the writings of the sages.
Each auditor pays a small sum of money to the lecturer, and a
Chinese attending a course of these lectures, acquires a pretty
fair knowledge of the history of his country. As the honora-
rium which the lecturer receives is very small, he seeks to add
to his gains by driving a trade in fruit and cigars ; and the table
at which he is seated is covered with them. It is not unusual to
see a person advance when the lecturer is discoursing, and re-
move an orange or a cigar, having first laid the price of it on
the table.

There is no important country in the world in which the
liberty of the press is so little recognized as in China. The
ignorance in which the people are kept with regard to passing

•"- The libraries of private gentlemen, it may be mentioned, are on a much
smaller scale in China than in our own country. The famous Emperor Kien-lung
Wong left a library of 168,000 volumes, but this appears small in comparison
witli European imperial libraries.

K o

VI.] THE PRP:SS. 179

events, wliether of a trifling or a serious character, is surprising.
Until quite recently there was notliing in tlie shape of a Chinese
newspaper throughout the length and breadth of the land,
except the Pclcing Gazette, — now published daily — wliich is the
oflticial organ of a corrupt government. It is, T suppose, the oldest
newspaper in the world, and is said to have been in existence
long before printing was invented in Europe ; and it is a singular
proof of the stationary character of the Chinese, that it should
so long have continued the sole newspaper of the empire. The
intelligence which it contains, is generally of a meagre nature,
and has reference to governmental details. Little reliance can be
placed on the veracity of its communications, and, notably, serious
defeats sustained by the Imperial troops are turned on its pages
into glorious victories. A copy of the Gazette is forwarded to
each provincial capital, and republished there under the strict
surveillance of the local government. .Should the publisher in
his re-issue add or take away from the original, he is liable to
a punishment of one hundred blows, and to a banishment of
three years. In each provincial capital a court circular is pub-
lished daily, containing the names of the visitors, official and
non-official, who have called at the Viceroy's palace on the pre-
ceding day. It also announces the birthdays of the members of
the Imperial family, and of the local officials of high rank.

The people derive a great deal of their information as to
recent events from newsletters. These are sold in the streets.
They abound so much in the marvellous as to be altogether
unworthy of credit, and the barefaced mendacity with which
they recorded the overthrow^ of the British and French troops
l)y the Imperial forces has probably never been surpassed. The
following is an extract from one of the new^sletters sold in
Canton during the late war : —

" Hearing that Prince Tseng had fallen back to Tung Chow,
the English and French divided their forces. The majority
advanced to Tung Chow, and the English ordered a thousand
cavalry to commence action. Prince Tseng also ordered his
Tartar cavalry to give battle, and seven hundred English cavalry
were killed hj the discharge of gingalls. The infantry then
advanced, and shooting and slaying commenced on both sides,

n2

180 CNIXA. ■ [chap.

while the roar of cannon continued without intermission through-
out the day. The fight lasted from seven in tlie morning until
three or four in the afternoon, when the English and. Frencli
were thoroughly routed — out of every ten men, eight or nine
were killed. Therefore the officer Parkes, and the officers who
were taken in company with him by Prince Tseng were all put
to death at Tung Chow, while of the defeated troops who re-
turned to Takoo, there remained scarcely five thousand.

" On the occasion when the English and French advanced to
attack Tung Chow, their design was to insult Pekin. Afterwards
when Prince Tseng saw that the turbulent barbarians after their
defeat dare not attempt to come up to Tung Chow to fight,
though still intending to attack Pekin, he sent a despatch to the
emperor to the effect that he had heard the turbulent barbarians
intended to take Pekin, and that they ought to be allowed to
enter the city, when they could all be hemmed in and taken
alive : so the gates of the city ought not to be closed. There-
fore, accordingly, the four gates of Pekin Avere opened wide ;
neither the dogs, nor the chickens were alarmed. Then upwards
of twenty thousand English and French, having left the Takoo
Forts, advanced straight to Pekin, and marched seven or eight
days, without meeting liindrance from anyone, until they arrived
at Yuen-mi ng-yuen, which is 100 lee from Pekin. This
palace is of vast extent, and contains wonderful flowers, and
strange fruits, besides curiosities in number beyond the power of
computation. It is, indeed, the greatest palace in all the eighteen
provinces of the Central Flowery Empire. The English troops
entered the Palace and lived there for some days ; and the
general of the land forces with five hundred officers came to look
at Pekin, to find out the true state of affairs. They saw all the
walls armed with swords and guns and warlike weapons in
thorough readiness — very unlike the city of Canton ! Moreover,
they saw the Tartar soldiers with arched eye-brows and glaring
eyes, bracing their muscles and grinding their teeth, rubbing
their fists and smoothing their palms, burning to spring down
from the walls to seize their enemies. Yet as Prince Tseng had
not given the word of command, they did not break their ranks.

" The English soldiers, seeing this, returned to Yuen-ming-
yuen, and then Prince Tseng hearing that the turbulent barbarians
had entered the palace was greatly rejoiced ; and issued orders to
the garrison of Pekin to attack the English and French, and to
kill them all. not leaving so much as a single shred. The Tartar
troops on receiving this order were greatly delighted, one and
all ; and one hundred thousand men rushed forward to tlie fight.
They beleaguered the palace, and slew for a day and a night.

Yi.] NEWSLETTERS— PLACAUnS. 181

The English and French were thnrougiily defeated. Fifteen
thousand were shiin. Yive thousand escaped with their lives
and tried to get ])ack to Takoo. Midway, however, they again
encountered Prince Tseng's army, and in the battle which fol-
lowed four thousand were killed ! One thousand and upwards
were taken alive, and brought before Prince Tseng for his orders.
The Prince put out the eyes of 200 of the most able-bodied, or
else cut off their noses, and then let them go back to Takoo.
Two hundred beaten soldiers at last got back to Takoo, and saw
the English and French admirals, who were greatly wroth when
they saw the disgrace of these men, and their gall and liver
were thoroughly disturbed. They wished to retreat with the
English soldiers to Shanghai ; but as the frost had set in, and
they moreover feared the ridicule of the barbarians of all coun-
tries, they were greatly perplexed, and they are now holding the
Takoo Forts.

" It is reported that all the barbarian newspapers say that
Pekin has been taken, and that His jMajesty the Emperor and
his ministers have fled ; but these are all falsehoods, and must
not be believed.

"I also send you a picture which will explain everything.

" There, were also more than thirty ships of war belonging to
the Americans, Spaniards, Dutch, and Eussians, who saw all tlie
fighting at Takoo."

In the absence of a public press, advertisements of public
auctions, tenements to let, &c., &c., appear in the form of pla-
cards. The subscription lists of benevolent funds are published
in the same way ; and when a temple or a public hall lias been
erected by voluntary contributions, the treasurer usually has
a placard pasted on the walls of the building to show how the
funds liave been laid out. Placards are also resorted to as a
means of ventilating grievances of all sorts ; and an oppressive
official, or a citizen who has made himself obnoxious, may
awake some morning to find the bitter complaint of one whom
he has injured, or the plain-spoken opinion of an anonymous
critic, posted on his door. Poor people oppressed by opulent
neighbours, and unable to obtain an audience of a magistrate
because they cannot fee his underlings, have recourse to them
to make known their grievances. Those who cannot even
afford to pay for the printing of a placard often seat themselves
near the doors of those who have injured them, and proclaina

182 CHINA. [chap. vi.

their grievances to passers-by. I once came npon an old woman
sitting near the door of a house, and loudly accusing the occu-
pant of having kidnapped her daughter.

In a country in which the fourth estate exists in so rudimen-
tary a form, where there are no raih^oads and telegraphs, and
which has no properly organized postal arrangements,^ public
opinion is essentially local in its tone. It is almost entirely the
creation of a middle class known as the " literary and gentry,"
who stand midway between a vast body of interested officials
on the one hand, and the mass of the people on the other. This
middle class consists of those who have been admitted to a
government examination, but who have not succeeded in being
of the select number to whom degrees are granted. They
exercise a salutary and, within limits, a powerful influence.

" They act," writes Mr. Low from the United States Legation,
at Pekin, in an official letter" to his government, '' as advisers to
the lower classes, and their good offices are sought by the govern-
ing class in the management of local concerns. By their superior
intelligence they are enabled to control most of the property, and
yet few accpiire such wealth as would enable them to oj^press
the people, were they so disposed.

" This class- create the public oj^inion of the country, which
exercises a controlling influence over the officials, and is usually
powerful enough to thwart the intentions and nullify the action
of the officers, from the emperor down, whenever popular rights
are in danger of being invaded or the people unduly oppressed.
So powerlul is the influence of the literati that all officials en-
deavour to conform their action to the popular will, and in
this view the government of China is essentially democratic in
practice."

1 There is no postal system under the direction of the government. In a large
city, like Canton, there are houses where letters addressed to persons residing at
distant ports are received and forwarded. At their destination the letters are
delivered by agents, who collect the postage on delivery. As a rule, such letters
are intrusted to the captains of passenger boats. In such cases, the letter is
sometimes prepaid, the sender writing on the envelope the amount he has paid.
In some instances, the postage is paid on receipt, the sender recording on the
envelope the amount which it is necessary for the receiver topaj', and prepaying
the postage of the reply. The Chinese are tolerable adepts at letter-writing,
and it is customary for them to corres])ond with relatives or friends at a dis-
tance. Persons who cannot write have letters written for them by fortune-
tellers, who are scribes as well.

2 The letter is under date .Ian. 10, 1871.

CHAPTER VI r.

MAEKIAGE.

Peobably no otlier nation sets sncli store Ijy the maxim that
" in the nmltitude of a people is the King's honour, but in the
want of people is the destruction of the prince;" and from
the earliest times the institution of marriage has occupied an
important, place in the polity of the Chinese. Young men
and maidens are made to feel that it is their duty to become
the founders of small communities of rational creatures, from
whom in turn other communities are to spring. The more
children — especially male children — a Chinese has, the more he
is reverenced, a large family of sons being regarded as a mark
of the divine favour. Indeed, the desire for male ofi'spring
seems to have as strong a hold upon this people as it had
upon the ancient Jews, although the motives which actuated
Hebrew parents in praying that sons might be given to them
are wanting to the Chinese. In their case also, however, the
desire is one which has its root in religious belief. It is a
natural outcome of the doctrine that the spirits of the departed
are rendered happy by homage received at the hands of their
male posterity. I remember being much impressed by the
great grief with which an old lady with whom I was ac-
quainted deplored the death of her son, who was upwards
of sixty years of age, she herself being eighty-two years old.
When I spoke to her gi-andsons, however, on the depth of
their grandmother's sorrow, they explained to me that she
especially grieved because death had removed the being whose
homage she had looked forward to as the great source of her

184 CHINA. [chap.

happiness in the wurkl of spirits. To take a case which
bears more directly on the subject of marriage : an aged
Cldnese refused to enter into an engagement with an American
missionary lady, to allow his granddaughter to remain for a
period of seven years at the missionary school. His grand-
daughter, who was then fifteen years of age, ought, he said,
to present him watli great-grandsons long before the expiration
of the seven years.

The marriage relation has at all times been regarded by the
Chinese as a personal one. But although this involves the
doctrine that monogamy is the rule prescribed by morality, poly-
gamy, in some parts of the empire at all events, is very much
l^ractised. In some of the northern provinces, and more par-
ticularly in that of Shantung, however, the great majority of
the inliabitants are monogamists in the strictest sense of the
term. Various causes have contributed to the prevalence of
polygamy amongst the Chinese, notwithstauding their theoretical
monogamy. Prominent among them is the strong desire for
offspring to which I have referred. In the earliest ages, child-
lessness was held to justify the taking of a second or third wife
in addition to the first, but apparently as an exception only, and
as the privilege of the wealthy classes. At the present day, a
second or third wife is regarded rather as a female servant than
as a wife, until she has borne children. Another cause may be
found in the fact that parents choose wives for their sons — a
custom which prevailed also in ancient times amongst the Jews.^
In many cases the wives thus selected prove most unsuitable ;
and as a young man is at liberty to select a second or third wife
for himself, he often avails himself of an early opportunity of
doing so. The law which compels gentlemen and tradesmen to
give their female slaves in marriage also operates in favour of
polygamy. Any one failing to do so, is liable to be summoned
before the tribunal of the town or village in which he resides,
and to receive a severe flogging for his neglect -

^ See, for exainple. Gen. xxi. 21, and xxxviii. 6 ; and Deut. xxii. 16.

® Where this law is evaded slaves are either bribed or compelled by their
masters to appear before a magistrate, and declare that they remain unmarried in
fonseijuence of their repugnance to marriage.

VII.] r()I,V(;AMV. 185

Another f;ict tends to promote polyL^aniy amongst this
sin-^nlar people. A husband is not expected to cohabit with
his wife after she has conceived, nor after the chihl is born,
during- the whole period that it is being nourished at the
mother's breast. Any violation of tlie rule, is supposed not
only to cause the child to become sicldy, but to provoke the
displeasure of the ancestors, and bring misfortune upon all the
members of the family. Wealthy Chinese are generally very
careful in the practice of such abstinence. I rememljer a
young gentleman, who resided in the southern suburb of
Canton, being severely chastised liy his parents for a violation
of it.

These reasons may in some measure account for the practice
of polygamy on the part of the Chinese. Let me add a few
words as to its evil effects. These are illustrated in the private
history of almost every Chinese family in which it is practised.
Many indeed are the heart-rending scenes which I have wit-
nessed in such homes. It has a tendency to promote licen-
tiousness, and leads to infidelity on the part of husbands. It
introduces envy, hatred, malice, and all uncharitableness into
households, and in not a few cases drives jealous wives to
commit suicide. I have often known it to result in a husband
expelling from his house, or selling, one of his wives, upon the
false accusation of a rival. Xaturally, therefore, many Chinese
ladies are opposed to matrimony. In one street alone — the
Shap-pat-kan street in the Honam suburb of Canton — I knew
four families in which there wore ladies who positively refused
to marry, upon the ground that, should their husbands become
polygamists, there would remain for them a life of unhappi-
ness. To avoid marriage some become Buddhist or Taouist
nuns ; and others prefer death itself to marriage. During the
reign of Taou-kwang, fifteen virgins whom tlieir parents
had afiianced, met together upon learning the fact, and
resolved to commit suicide. They flung themselves into a
tributary stream of the Canton river, in tlie vicinity of the
village where they lived. The tomb in which the corpses were
interred is near Fo-chune, and is called the Tomb of the
^'irgins. At a village near AVliampoa called Siu-tong-ki, in

18G CHINA. [chap.

July, 1873, eiglit young girls, who liad been affianced, drowned
themselves in order to avoid marriage. They clothed them-
selves in their best attire, and at eleven o'clock, in the darkness
of night, the eight maidens, who had bound themselves together,
threw themselves into a tributary stream of the Canton river.

Almost all Chinese, robust or infirm, well-formed or deformed,
are called upon by their parents to marry so soon as they have
attained the age of puberty. Were a grown-up son or daughter
to die unmarried, the parents would regard it as most deplorable.
Chinese parents who are apprehensive that, owing to a weak
constitution, the last hours of their son or daughter are not far
distant, often make immediate arrangements for the marriage.
A young man of marriageable age, whom consumption or any
other lingering disease had marked for its own, would be called
upon by his parents or guardians to marry at once. I may
quote the case of a delicate j^outh with whom I was acquainted.
He was a member of the family or clan " Eng " — probably at
the time one of the most influential and powerful families in
the city of Canton. His parents having been informed by the
family physician that their son's sickness would soon terminate
fatally, determined that without loss of time he should fulfil
an engagement of marriage into which he had entered. On the
day selected, the bride elect of the dying youth was brought
to his residence with all the pomp and parade Avhicli attend a
Chinese wedding. The ceremony was no sooner ended than the
bridegroom was reconducted to his sick chamber, where, in a few
days, he breathed his last.

In China, as in Christian countries, there are prohibitory
degrees of marriage. A man, for example, is not allowed to
marry a woman who bears the same family or clan name as
himself. The punishment for doing so is sixty blows, and the
marriage is declared null and void. Neither may a man marry
his cousin on his mother's side, nor his stepdaughter, nor liis
aunt, the sister of his mother. Offenders, if dealt with accord-
ing to the strict letter of the law, would be put to death by
strangulation. Tlie principal mandarins are not allowed to
marry women who reside in the provinces, prefectures, or
counti|bs, over which they bear rule. This law was framed to

VII.] I'ROIIir.ITOKY I)K(!UEES OF MAltiaAGE. 187

prevent uepotism, and to check the exercise of an undue in-
fluence on the part of one family over other families in the same
district. No lady may marry until she is fourteen years of age ;
while not to marry after becoming affianced, unless for urgent
private reasons, until she is upwards of twenty-tliree years of
age, is regarded as very wrong. The latter of tliese rules of
life is, I believe, borrowed from the writings of Confucius.
Playactors, policemen, boatmen, or slaves, are not allowed to
marry women of any other class than that to which ' they
respectively belong, A marriage may not be solemnized wlien
either of the parties is in mourning.

Marriages take place at all times of the year. The principal
season, however, is from the fifteenth day of the eighth montli
to the fourth month of the year following. During the ninth
month, however, which is regarded as very unpropitious, no
marriages take place, except, as will afterwards be shown, in
cases of extreme urgency. At the commencement of the
marriage season, books containing songs in honour of wedlock
are exposed for sale at the various bookstalls. With regard
to the hour of the day at which marriages are solemnized
there is no restriction. In some of the districts round
Canton they are always celebrated at night, not so much on
account of the heat of the day, as because, although the bridal
processions may not be so grand as they ought to be, they pass
unremarked, the darkness concealing all defects. At such mar-
riages, lanterns and torches are absolutely necessary. Lanterns,
however, are always a feature in the procession, either by day or
by night. This custom appears to prevail throughout the East,
as it has done for ages past. That the Jews used lanterns and
torches is very clear from the opening verses of the twenty-fiftii
chapter of St. Matthew's C4ospel ; and the writings of the most
famous poets of Greece and Eome contain numerous references
to it.i

Marriages, as I have said, do not take place during the ninth
month of the year, unless in cases of urgency. Only tlie
anticipated death of one of the parents of either of the affianced

^ See, for example, Iliad \\. 492; Eurip. Phicniss. 3i6 ; Medea, 1027; Fir(/.
Eclog. viii. 29.

188 CHINA. ■ [chap.

parties, would render such a step imperative. Where a
father, for example, supposes his own dissolution to be
imminent, he will command the immediate solemnization of
the marriage of his afiianced son or daughter, so great is the
anxiety of Chinese parents to witness the consummation of an
event which they consider of paramount importance. Such mar-
riages, of course, take place in haste. I was present at one on
the 27th of July, 1870, in a street of the Honam suburb of
Canfon, called On-wing-lee. The wedding was solemnized in
the residence of a gentleman named Cliu Ayune, who desired to
see his son married before his own death, which was imminent.
The youth, who was named Atchue, was in his fifteenth year,
and the yonng lady was of the same age. It was touching to
see the bridal pair doing obeisance to the dying father, who
was scarcely able to give them his blessing ; and to witness the
tenderness with which the youthful bride presented to him the
customary cup of tea and bowl of rice. At the close of the
ceremony, the bride was reconducted to the home of her parents,
to remain there until she was of a riper age. My friend Chu
Ayune breathed his last two days after.

On the 3rd of December, 1871, 1 was present at a similar
wedding between a man named Pang Wing and a woman
named Ho-asing, both in the humbler walks of life. The
marriage was solemnized at the liouse of the bridegroom's
mother, in the Ma-choo-pow street of the western suburb of
the city of Canton. The mother of the bridegroom, who was a
very aged woman, was in articulo mortis. She lay upon a bed
in the atrium of the house, with her feet towards the door, in
order that her soul upon leaving the body might have free exit
on its way to Elysium, The ceremony was entered upon
without delay, and duly and properly gone through. What a
scene ensued ! When the wedding garment, which with its
wide folds enveloped the whole body and arms of the bride,
was removed, it was discovered that she was a leper ! When
the fact was disclosed, a number of the female relatives of the
bridegroom, gave vent to their feelings of indignation and auger
in howls which made the welkin ring. They then turned, as
if actuated by a common impulse, towards the bride, whose

VII.] A I-EPKOUS RltlDE. 18'.)

appearance was now ghastly, to pour upon tlie unfurtunate
woman a torrent of the keenest invectives and most sweeping
vituperation. The poor woman at last looked towards me for
pity ; and evidently fearing that more serious evils might befall
her, she earnestly begged that she might be extricated from the
embarrassing situation. She was at once divorced, and returned
to her mother, who positively refused, however, to refund to the
bridegroom the dowry which had been paid by him for what he
justly considered a very bad bargain. A part of the sum was
eventually returned. During the scene, the bridegroom's aged
mother, who "lay a-dying," never once moved. Indeed, so motion-
less was she, tliat it appeared as if she had passed away
for ever. 8he lingered till the following morning, having
witnessed on her death-bed, in one brief hour, the marriage of
her only son, and its singular sequel, the immediate divorce of
the bride whom he had unwittingly espoused.

It may be asked, and the question is naturally suggested by
this episode, liow are matrimonial alliances brought about in
China ? . Tlu'ougliout the length and breadth of the land there is
a class of people called go-betweens, or match-makers, who obtain
a livelihood by selecting wives for those who desire to become
husbands, and husbands for those who wish to become wives.
These go-bet^^'eens or match-niakers are generally females, or
aged men. Parents who seek to affiance their children, usually
make application to one of tliis class, and the go-between
consults the list, which she always carries about witli lier,
of the names of eligible ladies and gentlemen. The age at
which young people are affianced is from seven to fourteen
years. In some parts of the empire, however, more especially
in the districts occupied by the Hakkas, children are
affianced in infancy. This custom is condemned by many
Chinese, on the ground that the children on coming to mature
age may show^ that they have been tainted with leprosy, or
lunacy, or some disease which would render it necessary to
cancel the engagement. I have already stated that in cases
of lunacy, matrimonial engagements are broken off. The rule,
however, is not invariable, as will appear from the following
account of tlie marriage of a youth with whom I was acquainted.

190 CniXA. [ciiAP.

Leong Amau, a young man residing in Lin-chee-tong, a village
in the vicinity of the market town of Sai-nam, who had for some
time been betrothed to a young lady, was called upon to leave
home en route for Shu-hing Foo, where he had business to
transact. During his stay he became insane, and wdiilst in this
condition frequently expressed his conviction that a young
woman was constantly following him, with the view of event-
ually becoming his wife. Upon his return home, he still
laboured under this hallucination. His parents consulted a
fortune-teller, and were informed that he was being pursued by
the soul of a female who had died a virgin, and who was
anxious, even in the world of shades, to obtain a husband.
They resolved to defeat the project of their son's ghostly per-
secutor, by marrying him forthwith to the girl to whom he was
already affianced. As in diity bound, however, they first pro-
posed to the parents of the girl that the engagement between
the young couple should be set aside on the ground of their
son's lunacy. This proposition, strange to say, did not meet the
views of the girl's parents. They argued that if the marriage
did not take place, the soul of the deranged youth would become,
in turn, a ghostly persecutor of their daughter, and would, in
all probability, entail upon her a similar melancholy malady !
Accordingly, this singular marriage was solemnized at the
village of Lin-chee-tong, on the 10th of December, 1871.

As in Mesopotamia and other countries of the East, it is
customary for the Chinese to marry their children according to
seniority.^ Parents, when engaging the services of a go-between
to assist them in selecting a wife for their son, are supposed to
impress upon the mind of the agent their anxiety that the
maiden chosen should be more remarkable for her virtue than
her beauty, upon the ground, probably, that a virtuous woman
is a crown to her husband. On the other hand, the young
lady's parents are supposed to prefer that their daughter should
be given in marriage to a young man more renowned for his
wisdom than his wealth, upon the score that the father of a
fool has no joy, and that fools and their money are soon parted.
The go-between is also supposed to select as husbands and

1 See Genesis, rliap. 29, v. 2C, and tlie P.ook of Tobit, chap. viii. v. 1.

VII ] ELOPEMENTS. 191

wives those who are in all respects likely to suit one another.
It is her duty also to ascertain -that the families of the contract-
ing parties are respectal)le, the members being free from leprosy,
lunacy, and crime, and not being either playactors, slaves, or
boat-people.

This system of Chinese parents selecting wives for their
children, and making these binding engagements in their name,
has a tendency not only to render breaches of promise impos-
sible, but to prevent elopements. Of course, it does not put such
enterprises out of the question. Occasionally, though rarely,
Chinese gentlemen elope with young ladies who have been
affianced to others. When elopements do take place in China,
the offending parties are, as a rule, unmarried young folks,
whose parents occupy, or have occupied, neighbouring dwelling-
houses. I remendjer a young woman named Chan Achan,
who was betrothed to a young man she had never seen,
elo]nng with the son of the next-door neighbour. The fugitive
lovers were eventually apprehended and put into the prison of
the Poon-yu magistrate at Canton, for breach of promise and
for disobedience to parents. The misconduct of the gentleman
was aggravated by the crime of abduction. I frequently visited
this couple during their imprisonment. In the spring of 1874,
a Taouist priest named Lob-hung, eloped with a young lady,
who was a member of the Fung family. The young couple in
this case also lived as neighbours, both residing in the Paak-sha
street of the western suburb of Canton. They had betaken
themselves for concealment to Poon-tong, one of the largest and
most populous suburban districts of the city, but they Avere
eventually discovered and made to return to their homes. The
parents of the yoiing lady, who moved in a higher sphere than
those of the priest, were naturally grieved, but they wisely
concluded that their only course was to give her to him
in marriage.

To return to the ceremonies connected with marriage in
China. When a go-between, who has been employed by parents
in their son's interest, has succeeded in selecting a suitable
young lady, the ceremony called Man-Ming takes place between
the fathers. The order of procedure in this ceremony is some-

102 CIIIXA. • [CHAK

M'liat tedious, but. it sliows the care and deliberation \yitli which
the Chinese proceed in what they naturally consider a matter of
the utmost importance. The father of the young man furnishes
the father of the young lady with a document which sets forth
the hour, the day, the month, and the year of his son's birth,
and the number and maiden name of the wife who is his son's
mother. He receives a similar document from the young lady's
father. The parents next consult their departed ancestors, and
for this purpose each places the document he has received on
his ancestral altar. When the ancestors are supposed to have
given their blessing, the parents, or persons appointed by them,
have recourse to an astrologer, who casts the horoscopes of the
youthful pail'. Should the result be favourable, an engagement
is entered into. It is effected by the parents, for, till the day of
the solemnization of their marriage, the young people are not
allowed to see each other. The father of the youth writes a
letter to the father of the young lady, stating that he has a
desire to receive her as a wife for his sou. This letter is de-
livered by " the friend of the bridegroom " on a lucky day
selected for the purpose. The writer of the letter, before placing
it in the hand of the friend of the bridegroom, stands in front
of his ancestral altar, and, looking towards the west, kneels
down and performs the kow-tow, taking care to knock his
head six times upon the ground. Eising from his knees, he
gives the letter to the friend of the bridegroom, and bids him
bear it with all haste to the young lady's father. When he
arrives on this mission, the bridegroom's friend is received at
the door by a person appointed for that purpose. The young
lady's father having been informed of his arrival, goes to
the door to meet him, and conducts him to the ancestral hall,
where he takes his appointed place on the east side, the west
side being reserved for the host. At the command of the con-
ductor of the ceremonies they approach the ancestral altar, and
make a profound obeisance to the ancestral tablets. The host
then moves to the east side of the hall and stands wdth his face
towards the w^est, while the friend of the bridegroom takes up
his position on the west side, facing the east. He then addresses
a few respectful words to the host, and presents the letter. This-

VII.] BETROTHAL CEREMONIES— MAN-MING. 193

is placed unopened upon the ancestral altar. The friend of the
bridegroom next presents to the host, in the name of the bride-
groom elect, several boxes of cakes and a live pig. In some
parts of the empire a wild goose and gander are amongst the gifts.
These birds are regarded by the Chinese as emblems of faithful-
ness in wedlock, and it is said that the same goose and gander
always pair, and that should either the one or the other die, the
survivor spends its remaining life in single blessedness. Where
wild geese cannot be procured, tame geese are often substituted.
In some few instances, wooden or tin figures of wild geese are
preferred to live tame geese. The cakes are conveyed to the
house in large red boxes, which are borne by men wearing red
tunics. To the lid of each box a broad strip of red paper is
affixed, upon which are written the Chinese characters Shaong
and Hee, which mean twice glad, or twofold gladness. On this
occasion also a dowry, which varies according to the position of
the family, is given by the father of the suitor. A similar
custom was practised by the ancient Jews. According to the
law of Moses, the dowry given by the father of a Jewish suitor
was, in an ordinary case, from thirty to fifty shekels.^ Amongst
the ancient Greeks this custom must also have prevailed, as
Pausanias regards it as singular that a man should give his
daughter in marriage without receiving a dowry in return, and
gives a reason for the exception made in a particular case
(Lacon iii. 12-2). When the cakes have been arranged on the
ancestral altar, the host kneels before the tablets and twice
performs the kow-tow, upon which the friend of the bride-
groom is conducted to the visitors' hall and invited to take tea.
The host, who remains behind, removes the letter from the box
in which it is contained, reads it aloud in presence of the
tablets, kneels before them, performs the kow-tow thrice, and
proceeds to write his reply. This letter, duly addressed and
sealed, is placed in a small box. At the same time the boxes
in which the cakes were brought, are refilled with cakes by the
host's servants. Before leaving, the friend of the bridegroom is
again conducted into the ancestral hall, where the host, placing
him on the left side of the hall, presents with both hands the

* Villi' Exoil. xxii. IC ; Dent. xxii. 29 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 25 ; and Hosea iii. 2.
VOL. I. 0

194 CHINA. [chap.

box containing tlie reply. The host now kneels once more
before the ancestral tablets, and twice performs the kow-tow.
Upon rising he invites his guest to partake of a repast, an
invitation which is only accepted at the third time of its repe-
tition. They enter the dining hall and, after bowing to one
another, take their seats, the guest on the east side of the table,
and the host on the west. As this is a meal of ceremony only,
the host and his guest content themselves with taking wine with
each other three times, although the table is covered with
various viands. The friend of the bridegroom now takes leave
of his host, and, followed by the bearers of the boxes of cakes,
hastens to return with the reply to the house of his friend's
father. On his arrival he is conducted to the ancestral hall,
where similar ceremonies are duly observed. In both cases the
cakes, after remaining some time on the ancestral altar, are
divided amongst the relatives or friends of the contracting
parties.

As it may interest my readers to be made acquainted with
the tenor of the letters which are exchanged on such occasions,
I give a translation of two such documents which fell into my
hands. The translation of the first, which is from the father of
the bridegroom elect, is as follows : —

" The sun has long since risen, and the brightness of his rays
illumines the house wherein resides the fair. At this hour, too,
she, like the sun, has left her couch and attired herself in a
costume becoming the hour of the day, and her rank and station
in life. Her face has gazed upon the mirror, which has reflected
back upon her the beautiful features of which it is possessed.
Indeed, all nature has now assumed a beautiful aspect, and all
creatures, as it is designed by nature, are now pairing. I write
this as an evidence of my respect and devotion. Permit me,
therefore, respectfully to congratulate you, my venerable rela-
tive, whose honoural)le family has resided for so many ages in
Seng-Moon, or Yut Hoee, where its respected members have ever
been distinguished for their literary attainments, their essays
being written in a style almost unparalleled. Further, the essay
of your son in particular has obtained for him high literary
honours ; but no wonder, as your ancestors were one and all
men of distinction, and your descendants, therefore, cannot be

VII.] BETROTHAL CEREMONIES-MAN-:\IING. l!)r>

otherwise than men of renown.'- Your own rank is also great,
and your son will prove a worthy successor of the same. I, for
my part, have been from boyhood slothful and indigent. I
wander through the world as one without any fixed purpose,
and the rank which I hold is of a degree more honourable than
I deserve. Your daughter is gentle and virtuous, and as for my
son he is so weak in intellect as to be unworthy of her. But, as
you, upon hearing the words of the match-maker or go-between,
thought him worthy and at once consented to the engagement,
it is only right that the union should take place. Tliere will be
unbroken friendship between me and you after the celebration
of the marriage rites of our children. This is the day appointed
for me to give, and for you to receive the customary presents.
I therefore beg to forward them herewith. They are, however,
of a very ordinary kind and of no value. Indeed, I only
forward to you, together with a few simple things, a wooden
hair-pin, and I am in truth ashamed that I have no jewels,
precious stones, and silk fal^rics to present. You will, I am
sure, readily excuse me. AVhen these, the preliminary cere-
monies, have been observed, we shall anxiously await the
wedding day."

The translation of the reply received from the father of the
bride elect is as follows : —

" "Winter sets in, and the wild geese now fly about in large
flocks. The Pheng-Tye buds, and ere long its branches will be
thickly covered with flowers. This day the second quarter of
winter commences, and your presents were on the occasion
accepted with warm thanks. I beg most respectfully to con-
gratulate you, my venerable relative, whose hououiable family
at one period resided in the province of Fokien, but is now
settled in the provincial capital of Kwang-tung. Yoiir illus-
trious name was famous in Kougha, and your many virtues were
highly commended by the learned men of In-pheng. 1 have,
therefore, at all times regarded your incomparable good conduct
as ranging as high al)Ove that of your fellow men as the crane
flies high above the earth. Your maimers, too, are without a
parallel, being as gentle as the vapour compared with the tem-
pestuous winds. I am so poor as to be unable to maintain

1 From tliis it would ai)pear that the Chinese have a strong belief iu the
iloetrine that "like begets like."

"Nee, imijellem feroeos
Proseneraiit aij[iiilap euluiiiliani."

(J 9.

19(5 CHINA. [chap.

myself, neither can I find means to escape from the numerous
troubles by which I am beset. The disposition of your son is
benevolent. His mind, which is highly cultivated, is as lofty as
the heaven is high above earth. My daughter, who was born in
a poor cottage and is uneducated, rejoiced much on hearing the
words of the match-maker to the effect that you were anxious
that I should agree to give her in marriage to your son. Thus"
your son and my daughter are bound by tliis marriage contract.
The presents which you sent me are like the Tenga Ha and
Yee of Shang-hoo (two valuable curiosities) and I am very sorry
that I could not in return present you with a similar compliment.
These ceremonies are the signs of increasing generations. When
your son and my daughter are united in marriage, there will be
unbounded affection between them."

The next ceremony connected with betrothal is called Nap-
Pie, or presentation of silks. This was in ancient times called
ISTap-Chiug. A court dress, with other gifts, is sent to the
bride elect by the parents of the lover. It is followed by a
banquet at his residence. The court dress is sent to the young
lady on a lucky day, accompanied by a letter, and is made to
correspond with the rank of the youth whose wife she is about
to become. The same observance of rank is shown with re-
spect to the other gifts. If the youth be of the first, second,
third, or fourth rank, sixteen pieces of silk, ear-rings, bracelets,
hair-pins (cf. Genesis xxiv. 22), and ten boxes of cakes are also
presented to the lady. Sometimes one hundred boxes of cakes
are presented instead of ten. Such munificence, ho^v'ever, is not
sanctioned by law. Should the gentleman be of the fifth, sixth,
or seventh rank, he sends, together with the court dress, twelve
pieces of silk, ear-rings, bracelets, hair-pins, and eight boxes of
cakes. The ceremonies which are observed on the giving and
receiving of these gifts, are precisely similar to those which are
performed at the celebration of Xa]3-Tsoy. The menu of the
grand dinner which follows at the residence of the bridegroom
elect, is also regulated by his rank. If the youth, or his father,
be of the first rank, the banquet consists of six different kinds
of meats, together with many other viands ; if of the second
rank, it consists of four kinds of meats, and if of the third, of
three kinds-. On the tables of those of the fourth, fifth, sixtli,

VII.] BETllUTllAL CEREMONIES— NAP-PIE. 107

seventh, eighth, and nhith ranks, only two lands of meat, with
other viands, are served np.

When the contract has been ratified in this manner, that is,
hy the giving and receiving of cakes and other presents, nothing
save an attack of leprosy, lunacy, or any other serious
malady on the part of either of the betrothed couple, or un-
faithfulness on the part of the woman, can render it null and
void. So sacred is such an engagement considered, that, should
the lady prove unfaithful during the period preceding her
marriage, she would be regarded as guilty of violating her
marriage vows. Such contracts were, it is clear, regarded in
this liirht bv the ancient Jews.-^ But the reader cannot realize
the extent to which a betrothal is considered sacred and binding
by the Chinese, until he has learned the most exacting of all
its conditions. In the event of a bridegroom elect dying before
the solemnization of his marriage, the young lady to whom he
was affianced is called upon to live in the house of his parents
in a state of perpetual virginity. A lucky day is selected for
her proceeding thither, and the first duty which she performs on
her arrival, is that of kneeling before a wooden tablet bearing the
name of the departed youth, and bewailing his premature death.
I once met at the residence of one of the principal families of
Canton, a young lady, certainly not more than seventeen years
of age, who was the victim of this cruel system. She was re-
garded as the widow of the deceased, and, doubtless, received at
the hands of her new connections all the attentions due to her
station. AYlien a lady of this class attains the sixty-first year
of her age, she is much honoured by all her connections and
friends. As a mark of their appreciation of what they consider
an act of great virtue, it is usual to erect a monumental arch.
The government generally contributes to the fund established
for this purpose. These arches are commonly built of brick, or
granite, and, in some parts of the empire, of marble. In the
vicinity of Wo-chan Too, on the banks of the Po-yang lake, I
remarked one made of porcelain. Should a lady who has been
affianced die before the solemnization of her marriage, it is an

I This appears not merely from the history of Joseph and Mary, but from
certain passages of the Pentateuch, as, for example, Deut. xxii. 25—28.

198 CHINA. [chap.

almost invariable rule — at all events it is observed among
genteel families — for the youth to whom she was betrothed, to
go through a ceremony by which he is supposed to become the
husband of his departed fiancee. On a lucky day chosen for the
occasion, the gentleman, attired in the dress of a bridegroom,
awaits at his residence the arrival of the tablet on which her
name is recorded. This tablet is conveyed to his house in a
bridal chair, in which are placed a fan and a pocket-handker-
chief. The chair is preceded by a musician playing on a wind
instrument, which he holds in his right hand, while with his left
he beats a tom-tom or small drum, suspended from his waist-
belt. The bridal-chair is received at the residence of the bride-
groom with ceremonies not unlike those with which a bride is
for the first time ushered into the presence of her lord. The
tablet is placed on the ancestral altar of the bridegroom's family,
and his younger brothers and sisters, and nephews and nieces
perform the kow-tow before it. From the top of the tablet is
suspended a silver coin or medal, upon which are engraven the
name, and the dates of the birth and death of the deceased. A
number of Taouist priests are also in attendance to offer up
prayers or masses for the repose of the spiritual bride, whom
they call upon to promote the happiness of her new family,
and especially to prosper in all things her lord and husband.
Weddings of this nature take place by night only, the day-time
not being regarded as congenial to spirits. When a lady who
is affianced dies, it is the duty of her parents to forward intelli-
gence of her death to the parents of the youth to whom she was
engaged. These reply by sending a pig's head, four cakes of
dough, candles, a shroud, and a broken hair-comb. The pig's head,
cakes, and caudles are presented as offerings to the deceased ;
the comb is placed in her coffin. These ceremonies and the
funeral obsequies having been duly observed, arrangements for
the marriage are at once entered upon. At a ceremony of this
nature which I witnessed, the bridegroom, whose name was
Lo Kow-chee, jocularly observed to me that he had become the
husband of a piece of wood, alluding to the tablet which bore
in letters of gold the name of his departed ^rt?iC(fe.

After the Nap-Pie or presentation of silks, the next cere-

VII.] THE CEREMONY OF NxlMING THE DAY. 1U9

mony is the Tseng-Kee or selection of a lucky day for tlie
marriage. The day of the selection is one of great rejoicing.
In the Tseng-Kee it is customary either to consult an astro-
loger, or to refer the matter to the oracle of a deity. In an
event of such importance as the marriage of the emperor, the
selection of a propitious day is referred to the board of
astronomy. I remember seeing in the Pelcin Gazette of March
12th, 1872, the decree, issued in the name of the two empresses
dowager, which directed this board to choose in tlie ninth
month, October of the same year, a propitious day on which to
solemnize the marriage of the late sovereign Tung-chee. By
the same decree the princes of Kung and Paoyun were ap-
pointed to make all the necessary ceremonial arrangements.
In ordinary cases where the mysterious lore of the astrologer
is not called into requisition, an appeal is frequently made to
the god Chaong-Wong-Yae. It is usual, therefore, to find persons
anxiously bent on this mission at the temple in honour of this
deity at Si-chune, or at the still grander temple in honour of
the same deity at Shek-tseng. The goddess Loong-Moo, or
Dragon's Mother, is occasionally referred to on a matter of such
importance. In her temple in the vicinity of Hwang-chu-kee,
I have frequently seen ladies seeking information as to lucky
days on which to solemnize the marriages of their children.
When the information has been obtained, it is customary for
the father of the bridegroom elect to send a congratulatory
letter to the father of the bride elect, and if he be of the first,
second, or third rank, he sends at the same time two sheep and
four pots of wine. The wine is termed "glad wine." If,
however, the sender be of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth,
or ninth rank, two geese and four pots of wine are forwarded
with the congratulatory letter. " The friend of the bridegroom "
is deputed to convey the letter and gifts. On his arrival at the
residence of the father of the fiancee, he asks that gentleman
to name a day for the marriage. The latter replies, " Let the
father of the youth to whom my daughter is affianced name the
day." Upon this the friend of the bridegroom makes a profound
bow, and presents the letter in which the day is named.
A reply is sent approving of the day in question. Tor ten

190 CHINA. [chap.

or fifteen days, or in some cases for thirty days preceding
the wedding day, the bride elect, together with her sisters,
female friends, and attendants, bewails and laments her intended
removal from the home of her fathers. During this season of
lamentation, the sorrowing virgin declares at frequent intervals,
and apparently with much feeling, that to be removed from her
father and mother will prove to her worse than death itself.
Mention is, I apprehend, made of a custom similar to this in the
thirteenth verse of the twenty-first chapter of Deuteronomy.
The XDassage runs as follows : —

" And she shall put the raiment of her captivity from off her,
and sliall remain in tliine house, and bewail her father and her
mother a full month."

The night immediately preceding the wedding day is wholly
set apart for weeping and wailing, not so much by the bride
elect as by her attendants. This lamentation is termed Hoi-
Tan-Tsing, or to give vent to feelings of sorrow. "When, in
consequence of tlie destruction of the British and other foreign
residences by the Cantonese, I lived in a Chinese dwelling-
house at Honam, I w^as on one occasion disturbed for several
nights by loud lamentations issuing from one of the neigh-
bouring houses. Upon making inquiries, I was told that the
daughter of a neighbouring gentleman was about to be married,
and that her sisters and female relatives and friends w^ere
bewailing her intended departure from the home of her fathers.
On the day immediately preceding the wedding day, or on a
lucky day, even if it precede the wedding day by eight or ten
days, it is customary for her parents to send the trousseau of
the bride and all kinds of furniture, bedding, &c., to the residence
of her future lord. These are carried l^y men wearing red tunics ;
and in order that the people in the neighbourhood may be made
aware of the lil)erality of the father, the men appointed to carry
these various packages and boxes have to walk in procession
with their burdens through all the streets adjoining that in
which he resides. On the morning of the marriage day a large
breakfast is made ready at the house of the bridegroom. The
tables are arranged on the east and west sides of the dining-hall.

VII.] THE EVE OF THE MAKlMAiiE. 201

Near the entiaiice-door stands a table, upon wliicli are placed
four ^vine-cups. These cups are usually made of gourds, and are
called the Hop-Kun, or uniting cups. In the court-yard, and
at the foot of the steps l)y which the hall is approached, there
is another table, upon ■which are set viands for the special use
of the bridegroom, who is now called to attire himself. Should
he have no rank so-called, he is at liberty, if his father or grand-
father be of the third rank, to wear a dress of the fifth rank.
If, however, his father be of the fourth or fifth rank, he wears a
dress of the seventh rank, and if his father be of the sixth rank,
he wears a dress of the eighth rank. Thus attired he enters the
visitors' hall, where he is awaited by his father, to whom he does
obeisance by kneeling down and knocking his head six times
upon the ground. \Yhilst kneeling, he is presented with a cup
of wine, and requested to send for the bride elect. Formerly it
was customary for the bridegroom to go for his bride, except
when he was indisposed, when the duty devolved upon
" the friend of the bridegroom." Even now the bridegroom
occasionally, though very rarely indeed, goes for the bride.
In 1867, a young gentleman came from one of the midland
provinces to Canton for the purpose of marrying a daughter
of Acheong, who at that time was governor of the province
of Kwang-tung; and, in 1869, a young Tartar came all the
way from Pekin to marry the daughter of H. E. Suee Lun,
the viceroy of the two Kwangs. The bridegroom nowadays,
however, unless the circumstances are somewhat exceptional,
sends a large bridal chair, which is richly carved and gilded,
or, if not gilt, covered with the enamel of kingfishers' feathers,
for the bride's conveyance. The sons and daughters of high
of&cials or men of rank, are borne in a large state chair,
covered with red cloth and adorned with fringes. Such a
chair reminds one of the " litter of red cloth adorned with
pearls and jewels," which, we read in the Arabian Nights, King
Zahi-Shah made ready for the journey of his fair daughter. lu
almost all the country districts in the vicinity of Canton, a
rude sedan chair made of wood and painted red, is invariably
used. Above the door of the bridal chair, a strip of red
paper is suspended, upon which is written either " Kee-Lun-

202 CHINA. • [chap.

Tsoy-Tsze," or " Kee-Lun-Choy-Cliu/' implying that the in-
flueuce or presence of the Kee-lun is here. Sometimes, how-
ever, the strip bears a portrait of tlie god Chaong-Wong-Yae,
or an impression of his seaL The bridal cliair is carried last
in the marriage procession, preceded by many richly-carved
and gilded pavilions of wood, under which are sweetmeats
and ornaments. Among the processional emblems is a small
orange-tree heavily laden with fruit, and with strings of "cash"
hanging from its branches. The prolific orange-tree, with its
strings of cash, is emblematical of the numerous offspring, and the
increased wealth expected to result from the happy union. A
canopy or pavilion under which there is a representation of
the Kee-lun, is also borne by the bridal retinue. The Kee-lun,
to which I have already referred, is a fabulous quadruped, which,
the Chinese say, never fails to appear when a sage is born into
the world. A wild goose and gander — which it Avill be remem-
bered are the Chinese emblems of faithfulness in wedlock —
or in their absence their tame representatives, are included in
the varied list of bridal signs. The train is not complete
mthout an effigy or figure of a dolphin, emblematical of rank
and wealth. Eed boards, on which are carved in letters of gold
the titles of the respective ancestors of the bridegroom and his
bride, are carried by men clad in red tunics. Large lanterns
elaborately carved and gilded, and in each of which there is
a large red candle, are conspicuous on the shoulders of the
bearers. Bannermen and musicians in richly embroidered
dresses, umbrella-bearers, fan-bearers, and equerries, in number
proportionate to the rank of the bridegroom, swell the bridal
following, and add to the picturesque symbolism of the pro-
cession, in the front of which it is not unusual to lead a goat,
with its horns gilt, and its head decorated with a wreath of red
paper.

AYhen the procession, which of course is not complete until
the bride has joined it with her attendants, leaves the bride-
groom's house, the conductor is told to direct its course through
all the adjacent streets, so that the friends and neighbours may
have an opportunity of seeing it. Should any one attempt to
impede its progress there are lictors at hand, armed with whips

vii.] THE MARRIAGE PROCESSION. 203

and chains, ready to bind and flog all refractory obstructors. Its
near approach to the bride's house is announced by men who
beat gongs for this purpose at almost every step. " The friend
of the bridegroom," who accompanies it, bears a letter, written
on red paper tinged with gold, and addressed to the bride, calling
upon her to avail herself of the bridal chair, and to embrace
the earliest opportunity of setting out to her new home, where
an affectionate welcome awaits her. This letter is carefully
preserved by the bride. It is regarded much as marriage lines
are in England, and should she be so unfortunate as to be
divorced, it must be returned l)y her. Letters of this kind are
all very like each other, and I subjoin a translation of one
which was addressed by a Chinese friend of mine, named Chong
Chee-wo, to the father of the lady to whom his son was
affianced. The translation runs as follows : —

" On urgent business. In ancient times it was customary for
a bridegroom to go to the house of his bride elect for the
purpose of escorting her to her new home. Now, however, it is
usual for the father of the bridegroom to address a letter- to the
father of the bride, begging of him to send the bride with all
haste to the house of her future lord. As this latter custom is
one of much greater convenience, allow me, I pray you, to put
it in force on this occasion. Moreover, a bridegroom, to dis-
charge with effect the ceremonies which devolve upon an escort,
must have a perfect knowledge of bridal etiquette — a knowledge
this in which my son, as is the case with other bridegrooms, is
lamentably deficient. Sending a letter, therefore, is surely more
satisfactory to both parties. jMy son now waits in the hall of
ceremonies to receive your daughter. Bid her come, as all
things are now ready. May you have peace for a hundred years,
and prosper for five generations. This communication comes to
you with greeting."

On the arrival of the procession, the bride, who wears a
costume corresponding to the rank of her future husband, enters
the visitors' hall, where her father and mother, the former stand-
ing on the east side of the hall, and the latter on the west, are
waiting to receive her, "When she has performed the kow-tow,
and while she is still kneeling, a female attendant gives her a
cup of wine, and her father delivers a short address on the

204 CHINA. [chap.

the duties of husbauds and wives. The mother, in her turn,
dwells briefly upon similar subjects. The bride then expresses
a hope that her parents and brothers may obtain the blessings of
wealth, rank, and progeny, and retires to her chamber in order
once more to lament the near approach of the hour in which she is
to depart from the home of her youth. The father now goes to the
door, and making a profound bow to " the friend of the bride-
groom," begs him to enter. The latter does so holding a goose
in each hand, and they proceed to the visitors' hall, where the
father, taking his place on the east side, calls upon " the friend
of the bridegroom " to stand on the west side. Having here
delivered the geese to a servant, who places them on a table, the
bridegroom's deputy is requested to take up a position in the
centre of the hall, where, looking towards the north, he twice
performs the kow-tow. It is now time for the bride to make
her appearance. Before she leaves her chamber, a large fold
of red silk is thrown over her head and face by a female atten-
dant, for the purpose of concealing her features. Thus veiled
she is brought into the visitors' hall by two female attendants,
who direct her to bow to " the friend of the bridegroom," who
duly acknowledges the salutation. Escorted by her two female
attendants, one on each side, she enters the bridal chair. A few
well-dressed female attendants, corresponding in some measure
to our bridesmaids, having placed themselves in front of it,
the conductor of ceremonies is ordered to lead the procession
to the bridegroom's house, and the bridal chair is borne for-
ward amidst the clang of gongs, and the discordant notes of
rude musical instruments. Immediately behind it, four men
bear an ordinary sedan chair, in which is seated the youngest
brother of the bride, on whom, it would thus seem, devolves the
duty of giving his sister away in marriage. The procession is
joined by the attendants in red tunics, bearing red boards, with
the titles of the bride's ancestors.

On arriving at the house of the bridegroom's father, the bridal
chair, passing between the ranks of the bannermeu, musicians,
lantern-bearers, and others, who have fallen into line on each side
of the principal entrance, is carried into the porch and placed
npon the ground. The bridegroom now approaches and knocks

Yii.j THE MARRIAGE CEREMONY. 205

with his fan at the door of the chair. This is opened by the
bridesmaids, and the bride alights. Her features still remain
concealed by the veil of red silk. She is placed on the back of
a female servant, and carried over a slow charcoal fire, on each
side of which are arranged the shoes which were borne in the pro-
cession as a gift to her future husband. Above her head, as
she is conveyed over the charcoal fire, another female servant
raises a tray containing several pairs of chop-sticks, some rice,
and betel-nuts. By this time the bridegroom has taken his
place on a high stool, on which he stands to receive the bride,
who prostrates herself at the foot, and does obeisance to her
lord. This high stool is intended to indicate the great supe-
riority of the husband over tlie wife ; for, in China more than
in any other country of the habitable globe, woman is regarded
as the weaker vessel. Descending from liis elevated position,
the bridegroom removes the veil of red silk. Now for the first
time he catches a glimpse of his wife's face. It is still, however,
more or less hidden by tlie strings of pearls which liang from
her bridal coronet. The bridal pair are conducted to the
ancestral hall, where they prostrate themselves before the altar
on which the ancestral tablets are arranged. Heaven and Earth,
and the gods of the principal doors ef the house, and the
parents of the bride are the next objects of their worship. A
further act of homage, which consists in pouring out drink-offerings
to the ancestors of the family, having been duly performed by
the bridegroom only, the happy couple are escorted to the bridal
chamber, where they find the orange-tree with its strings of cash,
emblems of fruitfulness and wealth, and the burning tapers,
which formed a part of the procession, placed on the nuptial
couch. From the top of the bed are suspended three long strips
of red paper. On the first of these are written the characters,
On-Chong-Tai-Kat, or " from this bed much good fortune will
arise ; " on the second, Pak-Mow-Kum-Kee, which imply that
in a hundred matters or affairs of a bad nature there will be no
need for alarm ; and on the third, Pak-Tsze-Tchin-Sun, or " a
hundred sons and a thousand grandsons be your portion." The
bridegroom having now saluted the bride, they sit doM-n and
partake of tea and cake. During this interval the strings of

206 CHINA. [chap.

pearls wliicli hang from her coronet are drawn aside by the maids
in attendance, in order that the liridegroom may have an oppor-
tunity of seeing the features of his bride, who, that he may
receive a correct impression of them, has carefully omitted the
use of rouge in her toilet operations. Chinese ladies or matrons
freely indulge in cosmetics ; but on the day of their marriage
and during seasons of mourning these are prohibited. While the
bridal pair are thus engaged, many of the relatives and friends
assembled to celebrate the wedding, enter the chamber, and
freely remark on the personal appearance of the bride. Although
these remarks are passed with singular freedom, and are less
complimentary than truthful, they are not made in a subdued
tone of voice, but spoken so that every one may hear them. The
blessing of a numerous offspring is invoked upon the bride by
her new relatives and friends. The bridegroom soon rejoins
the guests, with whom he enters into conversation on the
ordinary topics of the day. At seven o'clock in the evening a
banquet in honour of her parents-in-law is prepared by the bride.
"When all tilings are ready the parents enter the banqueting-hall,
where the bride, after bringing the principal dish or caput cceniun
from the kitchen and placing it on the table with her own hands,
assumes the position of a waiting-maid. Filling the cup of her
father-in-law with wine, she presents it to him with both hands,
and whilst he is drinking the contents, she kneels at his feet and
twice knocks her head upon the ground. To her mother-in-law,
whose cups she now fills, she is equally reverential. The
banquet over, and the parents-in-law having washed their hands,
the bride is called upon to partake of a repast. On a table
which her father-in-law orders the servants to place at the top
of the steps by which the dining-hall is approached, various
viands are set, and she is invited to occupy a chair on the east
side of the table. Her mother-in-law fills a cup of wine and
presents it to her. Before receiving it, however, sLe rises from
her chair, and kneeling at the feet of her mother-in-law, does
obeisance by twice knocking her head upon the ground. At the
conclusion of this repast the parents-in-law leave the hall by
the west, and the bride by the east staircase. In some parts of
the empire it is customary for the bridal pair to retire to their

VII.] THP] WEDDIXCi FEAST. 207

private chamber to dine. Here the bride does not partake of
food provided by her husband, but of viands which she has
brought from her father's house. This singular custom is
regarded as an evidence of modesty on her part and is
carefully observed by her for three days. On such occasions
four very intimate friends of the family are present, whose
duty it is wlien each cup of wine is pledged, to address the
bridal pair on the respective duties of husbands and wives
towards each other. At the conclusion of this banquet, the
bridal pair are greeted with a discharge of fire crackers. When
the smoke has made its escape, a female attendant enters, bearing
a tray, which, kneeling, she holds towards the bridegroom with a
request that he will remove a small linen sheet which is placed
upon it,^ The bridegroom having spread the sheet upon the
nuptial couch, again seats himself, when the female attendant,
having taken her master's boots off, withdraws, leaving him alone
with his bride. Tlie bridegroom now removes from her waist a
girdle, which with its strings of cash is regarded as emblematical
of good fortune.

In some of the districts round Canton it is not unusual for the
bride to be kept up during the greater part of the night, answering
riddles. These are generally proposed to her by the bridegroom's
relatives and friends. Should she fail in giving a correct answer
to a riddle, she has to pay a forfeit of cakes to the person by whom
it was put. The observance of this singular custom is attended with
much drinking on the part of the gentlemen, and angry quarrels
not unfrequently result. At the village of Pa-chow, near
Whampoa, an old gentlemen of the clan or family Chaong,
whilst engaged in celebrating his son's marriage, was killed by
his nephew on an occasion of this sort. The youtli, who was
intoxicated, upon being rebuked by his uncle for setting riddles
of an improper nature, flew into a violent passion, which was
not appeased until he had imbrued his hands in the old man's
blood.

In many districts of the province of Canton, the bride and
bridegroom separate at once after the marriage ceremony has

^ On the followin<T morning this sheet is presented to the bridegroom's parents.
A custom similar to this was observed bj- the ancient Jews.

•208 CHINA. [chap

been performed. So soon as the festivities are brought to a
close, the bride returns to her father's house, there to await the
completion of the period of time — generally three years — which
it is thought should elapse before the bridal pair are permitted
to live together. If the residence of the bride's father be within
easy distance of that of the father of the bridegroom, she is
allowed to visit her husband's parents for a few days once every
month. Otherwise, such visits take place twice or thrice only,
throughout the year. The dragon festival and other joyous
occasions of the kind, are generally selected for them. The
bridegroom has at such times opportunities of conversing with
his bride ; but these visits of ceremony are, I believe, very
distasteful to Chinese brides. I may narrate the sad sequel of
the marriage of a youth with whom I was well acquainted.
This youth, Ng Acheong by name, a native of a village situate
at the base of the Lin-fa Hills, in the vicinity of the Bogue
Forts, where this custom is strictly practised, was called upon
during the month immediately following his marriage to leave
the provincial capital where his duties were, on a short visit of
ceremony to his parents, who were expecting to be honoured by
the presence of his bride, their daughter-in-law. The bride was
the first to arrive. On the morning following her arrival, how-
ever, it was discovered that during the night she had committed
suicide by taking poison. It appeared she had carefully con-
cealed the poison — which was a root called Woo-Mun-Kaong
by the Chinese — in her clothing previous to the departure from
her father's house. A few hours after this discovery the bride-
groom ariived, only to receive the intelligence of the suicide of
his bride. This singular and foolish custom also prevails in the
county of Shun-tuk, w^hich is one of the political divisions of
the province of Kwang-tung. With the view of suppressing
it, the magistrates of the district in question not unfrequently
issue proclamations calling upon parents to compel their
daughters to reside at once with their husbands.

At an early hour on the morning of the third day after the
marriage, the bride is escorted to the ancestral hall to worship
the ancestors of the bridegroom. The ancestral tablets are
removed from the altar, and placed on a table which stands in.

vir.] \V(Jl!SHri'PI\(; THH 1?HI I >E( !K()< (M'S ANCESTUIIS. :iO!)

the centre of the hall. On the east side of the hall stands a
table, covered witli viands. The bridegroom takes up his
position in front of this, while the bride places herself before
a similar table on the west side. In the centre of the floor of
the peristyle, or courtyard, of the ancestral hall, is placed a large
cushion, upon which the father of the bridegroom kneels, and
looking towards the ancestral tablets, does obeisance by perform-
ing the kow-tow. Having also poured out libations of wine, he
reads to the spirits of his ancestors a letter, the tenor of which is
much as follows : — " My son has married, and all the ceremonies
attendant upon such an occasion having been duly observed,
I now, therefore, give command to him and his wife to render
you homage, in the hope of propitiating you and prevailing
upon you to grant them many blessings." When this address
has been read, the bridal pair kneel before the ancestral tablets
and thrice perform the kow-tow. The parents, uncles, and
aunts of the bridegroom next receive the homage of the happy
couple, after which the parents present the bridal pair with
pieces of inoney wrapped in red paper. If the bride's parents
reside at no great distance, it is her further duty on the third
day after her marriage to pay a visit of ceremony to them at
noon, remaining with them for at least a few hours. Should the
distance be great, a more convenient day is selected. On this
visit she is accompanied by a number of servants, bearing
numerous boxes • of cakes and fruits together with roasted
pigs, fowls, &c. These presents are in acknowledgment of
their daughter's chastity. The head and hind quarters of one
of the pigs are returned to the donors, for the sake of luck. In
some instances the bride is accompanied by a master of cere-
monies, whose duty it is to present to the parents a letter which
plainly expresses what the gifts are intended to acknowledge.
This letter is carefully preserved. The custom is not very dis-
similar to one which was observed by tlie ancient Jews
(Deut. xxii. 13—17).

A bride who is found to be unchaste is not unfrequently
divorced, and sent to her parents on the morning after the
marriage. Sometimes a husband hesitates to make his wife
a public example. He tlierefore rests satisfied with allowing

VOL. I. ■ ■ P

210 CHINA. [chap.

her to return on the third morning after marriage to the house
of her parents, without the customary presents of roast pigs,
fowls, &c. My attention was once called to an instance. The
family of the bride manifested great indignation against the
bridegroom, declaring that the accusation brought against the
daughter was false, and insisting on the customary presents.
These the bridegroom, persistent in his declaration, declined
to give. An investigation ensued, which terminated in the
bride acknowledging her guilt.^

The bridegroom also pays a visit of ceremony to her parents on
the same day as the bride. He is received at the door by his father-
in-law, and they enter the ancestral hall, where the bridegroom
places upon the altar several gifts. Looking to the north, he
then kneels at the feet of his father-in-law, and twice performs
the kow-tow. This act of obeisance the latter cheerfully
acknowledges by looking towards the west and performing the
kow-tow. This, it may be observed, is the only occasion on
which the father-in-law kneels in the presence of his son-in-law.
The bridegroom now expresses a desire to pay his respects to
his mother-in-law, who to afford him an opportunity stands at
the door of her apartment. A repast is now made ready, of
which he is invited to partake ; and after drinking three cups
of wine at the request of his father-in-law, he returns home.
The visit of the bride on this occasion may extend to six, or
even eight hours. In the evening she must be present in her
new home to entertain the wedding guests.

On the evening of the fourth day following the marriage, it
is the duty of the bridal pair to entertain at dinner the friends
of their respective families. The invitation cards which are
issued on such occasions are stereotyped, and read very much
as follows : —

" On the eighth day of the present moon your younger
brother is to receive his bride ; on the seventh day the
wine cups will be cleaned and prepared ; on the tenth day
wine will be poured out, when he will presume to draw your
carriage to his lowly abode, that your conversation may be en-
joyed; and when, in the arrangement of the ceremony, your

^ It appeared she had secretly lived in incest with her brother.

vii.] BANQUET AFTER THE MARRIAGE. 211

assistance will be expected. To attend tlie ceremony your
brilliant presence is entreated. To what an elevation of
splendour will your presence assist us to rise !

" To the Eminent in Literature,
" Venerable First-Born,

"At His Table of Study.

"From Ho Kow, born in the evening, and who bows his head
to the ground and worships."

In 1856, I had the pleasure of being present together with
four or five English ladies, and as many gentlemen, at a banquet
of this kind. When we arrived at the outer gate of the house,
we w^ere very politely requested by the porter to wait a few
moments, in order that our arrival might be formally announced.
Whilst we were waiting, several Chinese musicians who were
seated within the porch, played a wedding tune. On entering,
we found the bride and bridegroom stationed, the one on the
right, and the other on the left side of the door, in order to
receive and welcome ns. We were escorted by them to the
visitors' hall, where we remained in conversation for some time.
The English ladies were then invited to enter the part of the
dwelling-house set apart for the use of the female members of
the family. During their absence, we had the opportunity of
seeing several interesting ceremonies. Amongst other native
visitors, Ngow-qua and several other wealthy Chinese gentle-
men called to congratulate the bridal pair. On each occasion
the bride came into the outer hall, where gentlemen visitors are
entertained, to receive the congratulations of these friends.
Each visitor prostrated himself at the feet of the bride, and
knocked his head upon the ground, saying at the same time,
" I congratulate you ! I congratulate you ! " whilst the bride,
also upon her knees and knocking her head upon the ground
replied^ " I thank you ! I thank you ! " This congratulatory cere-
mony was brought to a close by the lady presenting each visitor
with a cup of tea. At the banquet, which was served at seven
o'clock in the ancestral hall immediately in front of the altar,
there were present no fewer than thirty elegantly dressed Chinese

P 2

212 CHINA. [chap.

ladies, some of whom were tolerably good-looking. The Chinese
and English ladies did not, as in England, occupy places at table
among the gentlemen, but sat by themselves. The bride and
bridegroom did not dine with us, but assumed the character of
waiting servants. When with her attendants the former had
placed on the table the last course, consisting of boiled rice, she
observed that we had been most inhospitably entertained. If
the dwelling-house of a gentleman be deemed too small to
entertain all who are invited to assist in the celebration of the
marriage of his son, it is not unusual for him to erect a large
mat. shed, or tent. Tliis plan is frequently resorted to in Chinese
villages. At the village of Ha-long, near Canton, I was present,
in 1864, at a marriage, which was celebrated by the friends and
relatives of the bridal pair, in a large mat tent put up for the
purpose. Two hundred guests had room enough and to spare in
it. Sometimes the large mat tea-saloons which are erected for
the benefit of travellers by the sides of tlie high-roads, are
rented by Chinese parents on these occasions.

A Chinese is at liberty to take to himself as many wives
as he can afford to maintain. The second and third wives are
generally women of large feet and low origin, the first wives
being almost invariably, excepting of course in the case of
Tartar ladies, women of small feet. The first wife is invested
with a certain amount of power over the others, and assigns to
them their various domestic duties. Indeed it is not usual for
second or third wives to sit in her presence, without having first
obtained her permission to do so.^ Upon the first wife of a
Chinese gentleman of rank is bestowed a title which corresponds
to that of her husband, as is the case with the wives of peers
and baronets among ourselves. It is customary for such ladies,
when paying visits, to be escorted through the streets of a city
by a retinue of equerries, swordsmen, lictors, and other attend-
ants, equal in number to that to which their husbands are
entitled. On such occasions it is a rule with ladies of rank not
to close the blinds of their sedan chairs, as do other ladies.
They permit themselves to be seen by the public, as if proud

' In a fainily, liowever, where the second or third wife succeeds in usurping
the atfections of the liusband, the aiithoritv of the first wife is ignored.

I

VII.] SECOND AND TlIUiD WIVES. 213'

of the equipage and attention which mark their rank. In the
case of tlie demise of a fu'st wife, the second does not succeed'
to her position. She remains in her former station, whichj as'
has ah'eady been stated, is, in the event of her having borne no''
children, that of a servant rather than of a wife. Nor are*'
the tablets of the wives who die without issue placed upon the'
principal altar of the ancestral hall, but usually upon shelves,
put up for the purpose in an adjoining chamber. When dying,
second or third wives who have not borne children are
removed from the dwelling-house to an humbler abode. They
are not entitled to die in the dwelling-house of their master !
I remember an instance of this which occurred in 1862. The
fourth wife of a wealthy Chinese gentleman, named Eng Sze-tai,
who resided at Honam, a suburb of the city of Canton, was in a
dying state ; and at the command of her husband, tliis woman,
whose last hour was seen to be approaching, was removed to an
out-house which was occupied by one of the men-servants.

I have observed that second and third wives are in many
instances women of low origin; and this remark is true to an
extent which the English reader could not realise, unless I added
that they are not unfrequently public women, known previously
to the Cliinese husband, who as a rule is inifaithful to his wife.
Even in the upper ten it is not unusual to meet with wives of
this rank. In the Eng, or Howqua family, there are many such
ladies. Nor are other instances far to seek. A gentleman of
rank named Hoiee Chaong-kwong, who resided in the Koo-tai-
Kai street of Canton, and who was for many years Chief Justice
of the province of Kwang-si, was renowned throughout the city
and its neighbourhood not so much for his legal acumen, as for
being the husband of a second wife whose personal charms, say
the Chinese, were without a parallel. This lady was selected
by Hoiee Chaong-kwong as his second wife, and so great was
his affection for her that, upon the death of his first wife, he
memorialized the Emperor Taou-kwang to confer upon her tlie
title and dignity of a first wife. The second or third Mile of
Chaong Yik-lai, the famous governor of Kwang-tung, was for
some time a prostitute at Canton. It ought,- however, to- be
stated that women are occasionally found in houses of ill-fame

&

214 " CHINA. [chap.

who are the daughters of respectable parents, and who, during
times of rebellion, have been seized by shameless villains and
sold to the proprietors of such establishments. In some cases,
female slaves are chosen to be the second or third wives of
Chinese gentlemen. To a gentleman who is in search of a
second or third w4fe, a go-between or match-maker can always
furnish the name of a householder who, having three or four
good-looking female slaves in his establishment, is willing to
give them in maniage. The gentleman inspects the slaves at
their owner's house. This interview takes place in the principal
hall, and the girls, attired for the occasion in the habits of ladies,
are brought in for inspection, one at a time, by the match-maker.
In 1864, I saw a transaction of this sort in the house of a
Chinese gentleman at Canton. The intending purchaser nar-
rowly scanned the figure of the blushing maiden ; who was
made to uncover her arms from the wrists to the shoulders,
and her legs from the ankles to the knees. In order to prove
that she was not halt, she had to walk from one end of the hall
to the other ; and that it might be clearly shown that she had no
impediment in her speech, she had to speak for several seconds
in a loud tone. Whilst he was examining the young woman
as a cattle-dealer would examine a brute beast, he was
encouraged, or discouraged, by remarks passed on her personal
appearance by two gentlemen who accompanied him. On the
floor was a red lacquer-ware box containing sweet cakes, which
were intended as a present to the girl. My presence evidently
had a tendency to interrupt the sale and transfer, and I with-
drew. No purchase, however, w^as effected, as I saw the poor
girl in the house of her master on several subsequent occasions.
Where a gentleman succeeds in selling his slave girl as a second
or third wife, it is usual for him to give a small dowry. This is
given on the day preceding her marriage, and consists of one
summer and one winter dress, a pair of richly-embroidered shoes,
a bed coverlet and bed curtain, a dressing-case, an umbrella, and
a trunk. Although the marriage of a second or third wife is
not attended with that degree of pomp and ceremony which
marks the marriage of a first wife, the religious ■ rites are
precisely the same in both cases. At the close of the religious

VII.] SECOND MARRIAGES. 215

observances, the second wife is taken into the presence of
the first, before whom she kneels and performs the kow-tow.
At such marriages it is usual to call into requisition the
services of an aged man, who is one of a class called Fa-
Koong. Upon him devolves the duty of exhorting the newly-
married couple to live together in the bonds of affection.
The bride is also exhorted to love, honour, and obey the first
wife of her husband. The man selected for this office must
have attained the ripe age of seventy years, and preference
is given to a married man, whose wife has been his partner
from his early manhood, and is of the same age as himself.
I have already had occasion to state that polygamists are, in
many cases, frequenters of houses of ill-fame. It remains
for me to add that in cities and towns there are Chinese who,
independent of the many wives which they have, keep mistresses,
although I cannot say that such cases are numerous.

It is considered very improper for a widow to contract a
second marriage ; and in genteel families such an event rarely,
if ever, occurs. Indeed, if I do not mistake, a lady of rank
by contracting a second marriage exposes herself to a penalty
of eighty blows. Amongst the lower orders, however, such
marriages occur, poverty being generally alleged as an excuse.
It is not unusual, indeed, for parents-in-law, if poor, to compel
their widowed daughters-in-law to contract second marriages.
Where cases of this kind come to the knowledge of the magis-
trate, the parents-in-law, having received in the first instance a
punishment of eighty blows, are transported to one of the
neighbouring provinces for three years. Many poor widows do
not hesitate to commit suicide, in order to avoid compliance
with these demands ; and proclamations are sometimes issued
by the mandarins, calling upon parents not to force their
wddowed daughters-in-law to contract second marriages. In a
large city like Canton, there are houses where poor widows from
the country take up their abode, in the hope of obtaining
husbands. Such establishments are presided over by match-
makers, or go-betweens, and, in some instances, by aged men.
On the occasion of a widow marrying, it is not unusual for the
brother of the deceased husband to take the children of her

216 CHINA. [ciiAr.

first marriage from her, and to regard them, in future, as his
own ; while the children, if any, of the second marriage are
not unfrequently looked upon as the offspring of a wanton. A
Cliinese gentleman with whom I was well acquainted, paid me a
visit on one occasion, accompanied by two of his personal
friends ; and upon introducing them to me he observed — speak-
ing in English, of which his companions were ignorant — that
they did not belong to the dite, inasmuch as they Avere the issue
of a second marriage which their mother had contracted. ' He
wished me to understand that he regarded his companions as the
sons of a woman who, by polite society, was considered as not
strictly virtuous.

AVhilst on the subject of marriage, I may state that a singular
custom, called the " doulile marriage," is observed in Chinese
families, . th(j members of which for three generations are still
living, and the senior male members of which have obtained
rank. The " double marriage " cannot take place until the
grandparents have each reached the age of sixty years, and it
is then celel)rated in the following manner : — The grandmother
returns to her native place, in order that her husband may have
an opportunity afforded him of seeking her hand once more
in marriage. "When the necessary preliminaries have been
arranged, and a lucky day has been selected for a renewal of
the marriage tie, the bridal chair, attended by bannermen and
musicians, is sent by the grandfather to the house where his
aged spouse has taken up' her abode. The procession is headed
by a master of ceremonies, who presents the old lady with a
letter, in which her husband begs of her to seat herself in the
bridal chair, which he has sent for her conveyance^ and to
return to heV home, in order that he may have the honour of
renewing his nuptial vows. A number of relatives and friends
assemble at the house, in order to greet the happy old lady on
her return ; and the ceremony is brought to a close by much
feasting and merriment.

One other marriage custom, as absurd as it is wicked, remains
to be noted. In China, not merely the living are married, but
the dead also. Thus the spirits of all males who die in infancy
or in boyliood, are in due course of time married to the spiiits

VII.] TlIK MAIUaAdl-: OK i)?:rAUTKI) SIM HITS. 217

of feijialcs who have been cut off at a like early age. If a
youth of twelve years dies, it is customary when he has been
(lead six or seven years, for his parents to seek to unite his
spirit in wedlock with that of a girl whose birth and death
corresponded in point of time with those of tlieir son. For this
purpose application is made to a go-between, and when a
selection has been made from this functionary's list of deceased
maidens, an astrologer is consulted. When the astrologer, having
cast the horoscopes of the two departed spirits, has pronounced
the selection judicious, a lucky night is set apart for the
solemnization of the marriage. On that night, a paper figure
representing a bridegroom in full marriage costume, is placed
in the ceremonial hall of his parents' house ; and at nine o'clock,
or in some instances later, a bridal chair, which is sometimes
made of a rattan-frame covered with paper, is despatched in the
name of the spirit of the youth to the house of the parents of
the deceased girl, with a request that they will ]»e so good as
to allow the spirit of their daughter to seat itself therein fur the
purj^ose of being conveyed to lier new" home. As one of the
tliree souls of which the body of a Chinese is supposed to be
possessed, is said after death to remain with the ancestral tablet,
the tablet bearing the name of the girl is removed from the
ancestral altar and placed in the bridal chair, where it is
supplemented by a paper figure intended to represent the bride.
The bridal procession is headed by two musicians, one of whom
plays upon a lute and the other upon a tom-tom, and some-
times the wearing apparel which belonged to the deceased girl,
and which for the future is to be in the keeping of the parents
of the departed youth, is carried in it. On the arrival of the
procession, the tablet and the effigy are removed from the bridal
chair, and placed, the former on the ancestral altar, and the latter
on a chair close to that occupied by the effigy of the Itridegroom.
A table covered with various kinds of viands is placed before
the effigies, whilst five or six priests of Taou are engaged in
chanting prayers to the spirits, calling upon them to receive one
another as husband and wife, and to partake of the wedding
repast. At the close of this ceremony the effigies are burned,
together with a great (piantity of paper clothes, paper money,

218 CHINA. [cHAr. vii.

paper man-servants and maid-servants, fans, tobacco-pipes, and
sedan cliairs. I was once present at such a ceremony. It took
place at the house of a Chinese friend named Cha Kum-hoi,
who resided in the Kwong-ga-lee street of the western suburb
of Canton. The immediate occasion of this marriage was, it so
happened, the illness of this gentleman's wife, which was attri-
buted by the geomancer or fortune-teller to the angry spirit of
her son, who was importunate to be married. A matrimonial
engagement was therefore immediately entered into on behalf
of the deceased son, and was duly solemnized as I have
described it.

AVIFE AND CHILDREN OF AN OPIUM-SMOKEK,

CHAPTEE VIII.

DIVORCE.

The law of divorce in China lias, apparently, from time imme-
morial, aftbrded great facilities to men in all ranks and conditions
of life for putting away their wives. On the other hand, as
was the case amongst the ancient Jews, a wife cannot cite her
husband, however culpable his conduct may be, before any of
the civil tribunals with the view of obtaining a dissolution of
marriage. The grounds upon which a husband can obtain a
divorce from his wife are the following :— Incompatibility of
temper, drunkenness,^ theft, desertion, disobedience, lewdness,
undutifulness towards himself or towards his parents, a dis-
covery of her unchastity on the first night of marriage, and
unfaithfulness.

The facility which so comprehensive a list gives to Chinese
husbands for putting away their wives, is not lessened by the
very simple mode of procedure through which a divorce is
obtained. The husband seeking a divorce, invites his father
and other male relatives and kinsmen to meet in the ancestral
hall of the clan or family, for the purpose of hearing and
investigating the charge, or charges, which he is prepared to
prove against his wife. To each one invited, a betel nut

^ Drunkenness probably includes opium-smoking. Thus, in 1871, a physician,
named Lum Hok-hin, who resided in the Honam suburb of Canton, put away
his wife upon discovering that she was an opium-smoker. She had only been
married to him for a few weeks, when she was sent back by the disappointed
husband to her native village.

220 CHINA. [chap.

wrapped up iti green leaves is respectfully presented by the
aggrieved husband. In some of the rural districts the husband
convenes a meeting of this kind by beating a gong, and " cry-
ing " his invitation to his male relatives and kinsmen through
the village. The proceedings in the ancestral ball begin with
worship being rendered to the ancestral tablets. In the pre-
sence and in the hearing of his wife, the aggrieved husband
then states his case, and supports it by all the evidence he can
bring forward. When the merits of the case have been fully
discussed by the relatives, they give a decision supposed
to be founded on the evidence. If the charge be established,
a bill of divorcement is immediately given by the petitioner
to the respondent. This bill, which is not written in the
dwelling-house of the petitioner, but outside, is usually signed
by both the parties concerned. Each signature consists of an
impression made in ink by the tip of the forefinger of the right
hand. It ought to be added that a Chinese husband cannot
put away his wife for any of the minor offences which make
divorce possible, should he be in mourning for a parent at the
time when the offence was committed.

But what, it may be asked, becomes of the wives who have been
divorced ? A first wife when divorced is, as a rule, permitted
to return to the home of her parents, or, in the aljsence of
parents, to the home of a near relative. Should she, however,
be so unfortunate as to have neither father, nor mother, nor
near relative, she is usually sold by the husband who has
divorced her to a " go-between." In this case she may, if no
worse fate befall her, become the wife of another man. A
second, or third wife, when divorced, generally meets with a
very sad fate. If sold to a go-between, and if she be at all
good-looking, she is at once re-sold to the proprietress of a
13ublic brothel, who for a female of prepossessing appearance
is always prepared to give a high price. In August, 1861,
I met with a very sad illustration of the melancholy fate
which in this way frequently befalls a divorced wife of inferior
rank. A female of prepossessing appearance, and evidently
in deep distress, was being forced by a procuress and her
attendants along the principal streets of Canton. I learned

VIII.] THE FATE OF DIVORCED WIVES. •>'!{

that, in consequence of a minor fault on her part, she had
heen divorced and sold. Sometimes, it occurs that a second
or third wife, when divorced, is cruelly turned into the open
streets by the person who a few minutes before called himself
her husband. In such a case she is, of course, driven to have
recourse to a life of beggary, or, wdiat is infinitely Avorse, a life
of prostitution. I have not unfrequently seen women who
have been divorced from their husbands, begging in the streets
of Canton. On one occasion I was induced to make some
inquiries into the history of one of these women, and learned
that she had been dismissed for ever from the bed and board
of her husband in consequence of her violent temper. I asked
a Chinese merchant to make inquiries in this case for me.
Shortly afterwards the woman disappeared from the street in
which it had been her custom to beg ; and I next saw her
near the door of the merchant, no longer in the tattered robes
of poverty, but in the fashionable dress of a Chinese lady.
Probably, as her appearance was prepossessing, he had made
her an inmate of his harem.

Many Chinese gentlemen, however, seek to save their
divorced wives from beggary and prostitution. In such cases
the woman receives a sum of money sufficiently large to
supply her with all the common necessaries of existence, if
not for life, at all events for many years to come. An illus-
tration of this will be found in the following translation of
a bill of divorcement which was given by a gentleman named
Kwan Hang, who resided in a street of Canton called Kat-
chong-fong, to a woman named Wong Abeong, who was his
second wife. The bill of divorcement ran as follows : —

" My second wife, Kwan Woug-shee, having been most negli-
gent in the discharge of all her domestic duties, and having
been repeatedly warned by me of her shortcomings in this
respect, and no signs of amendment on her part having been
observed 1:)y me, I, Kwan Hang, having referred the case to the
elders, now find that it is my painful duty in consequence of
her undutifulness to put her away. She is, therefore, from this
time at liberty to become the wife of another. Should she,
however, after the pecuniary provision which I have made for
her, resort for a liveliliood either to a public brothel, or become

222 CHINA. - [chap.

the kept mistress of any one, it is still in my power to seize
her person and have her arraigned before one of the city
tribunals with a view to her being committed to prison.
Further, let it be clearly understood that, should misfortunes
of any kind befall this woman Wong Aheong, her parents and
guardians have no claim upon me.

" In proof of which I write this bill of divorcement and place
it in the hands of Won" Aheonsf.

" Sixteenth day of sixth month of sixth year of Toong-chee."

Desertion on the part of the wife constitutes a much more
serious offence against the laws of marriage than either un-
dutifulness or an ungovernable temper. A woman who deserts
her husband, may not only be divorced, but may bo brought
before one of the tribunals of the city in which she lives, in
order to undergo a punishment of one hundred blows. Were
she on deserting her husband to become the wife of another, the
added crime of bigamy would bring her within the reach of the
law's ultimate penalty, death by strangulation. Many Chinese
husbands, however, are anxious to recapture their runaway
wives, not because they wish them to be punished, but because
of the affection which they entertain towards them. I have
occasionally seen amongst other placards on the walls of Chinese
cities and towns, bills offering rewards on the part of such
husbands — who are generally not of the lower ranks of life —
for the capture of their runaway wives.

If a husband desert his wife in a season of distress, the wife,
on the expiration of the third year of his absence, may become
the wife of another. Before doing so, however, she is obliged
to prove the desertion on the part of her husband three years
before, to the satisfaction of the magistrate of her district.
Neglect to do so, would subject her on conviction to a punisli-
ment of one hundred blows, and her marriage with a second
husband would be declared null and void. Again, if, at tlie
time she lodges her declaration of desertion with a view to a
second marriage, any of the relatives of the absent husband
come forward and express their readiness and ability to support
her during the prolonged absence of her husband, the magistrate
refuses permission for her to many again. The absence of

VIII.] GROUNDS OF DIVORCE. 223

a husband for a period of twenty or thirty years on business
of an official or commercial nature, does not disannul his
marriage ; and were the wife of such an one in his absence to
become the wife of another, she would in the event of his return
l)e put to death by strangulation. It may here be mentioned
that, should husband and wife be mutually dissatisfied with each
other, they are quite at liberty to sign a deed of separation.

Another of the offences for which a wife may be punished
as well as divorced, is that of beating or striking either of her
pareuts-iu-law. Should this offence, for which as in the other
instances she is tried in the ancestral hall by the husband's
relatives, be proved against her, she is severely flogged through
the principal streets of the town or village in, or near -whicli
is the home from which she is expelled. This punishment
may appear very severe for the offence in question. But
such certainly is the chastisement inflicted upon all offenders
of this kind in Si-chu, Si-nam, and other rural districts
in Kwang-tung. The hands of the woman are bound behind
her back, and as she walks through the streets, she is pre-
ceded by a man beating a gong. At each sound of the gong,
the husband from whom she has been divorced, gives her
a severe blow across the shoulders with a rattan. Should the
husband be absent, the corporal punishment is inflicted by a
brother, or a cousin, or an uncle of the absentee. An offender
of this class is, also, in some districts occasionally exposed as
a gazing stock in the market-place of the town to which she
belongs.

In the preceding chapter, I have already given some account
of the consequences attendant on the discovery of a bride's
unchastity. The most serious charge, however, upon which
a Chinese husband can obtain a divorce from his wife is that of
unfaithfulness. Even a suspicion of this exposes her, however
innocent she may be, to much harsh treatment at his hands. I
remember an instance, which occurred in 1861, of a srentleman
named Foong Kam-sam, beating his wife to death on the bare
suspicion that she had been unfaithful to hira. This monster
of cruelty resided in a street of the western suburb of Canton,
named Shat-sam-poo. It appeared from inquiries whicli I

'2-24 CTIIXA. [riiAP

made on the spot, that the poor woman had gone from home for
two or three hours during the evening in question, to witness
a religious festival. On her return her husband accused her of
unfaithfulness, and, binding her hand and foot, deliberately
flogged her to death. 'V\1ien I entered the house on the follow-
ing day, I found the almost naked corpse of the poor woman
stretched on the floor. It presented a very sad spectacle, the
whole body, more especially the head, face, and shoulders, being
very much lacerated. The mother of the murdered lady had
stationed herself outside, on the OT)posite quarter of the street ;
and, in a state of frenzy, she continued to speak to the passers-
by of the brutal conduct of her son-in-law for several hours.
The murderer was taken to prison, but not so much, I apprehend,
in the character of a prisoner, as of one from whom the authori-
ties were simply anxious to obtain an explanation of the
circumstances attendant on the violent death of his wife. I
was present at the police court when the wretch was under-
going his examination, and was not a little astonished when
his discharge from further confinement was ordered by the
magistrate.

"WTiere a wife is taken by her husband in the act of adulter}'',
the law authorizes him then and there to put the adulterer and
adulteress to death. The law, however, is also very positive in
directing that, if he shed blood, he must kill both of the offend-
ing parties. If, while putting one of the guilty couple to death,
he were to show mercy to the other, the deed would not be dis-
tinguishable from murder, and he would be tried for this crime
before the head tribunal of his native district. For should he
kill the adulteress only, her nearest friends and relatives would
decline to receive his bare assertion as valid evidence regarding
the occasion of her death, and would demand his execution as
a murderer. Were he, on the other hand, to kill the adulterer
only, the relatives and friends of the latter would become his
prosecutors.

A further condition is, that the husband shall receive no as-
sistance in putting the guilty couple to death. Were he to do
so, the person or persons assisting him would thereby render
themselves liable to a charge of murder. There can be little

VIII.] SUMMARY VEXGEAXCE. 225

doubt, htnvever, that in nearly all such oases the event is pre-
meditated, and friends of the husband are in ambush with the
view of rendering assistance if necessary. The manner in wliich
a tea mercliant in Canton avenged himself upon his second wife
and her paramour, presents a case in point. The merchant^
whose name was Suen Lu, had reason to suspect that there was
a liaison between Achaong, his second wife, a young woman of
great beauty, and his adopted son, a young man called Wong a-
Wan. On one occasion, therefore, Suen Lu took leave of his
family, setting forth that it was his intention to proceed on
a journey to the neighbouring province of Kwang-si, of which
he was a native. Before leaving, however, he entered into an
arrangement with two servants — whom he could trust — that,
should the ruse deceive the guilty couple, they should place
a long stick of burning incense at the front door. The signal
\vas given, and the aggrieved husband, rushing into the chamber,
slew M-ith liis own hands, it was declared, both Achaong and her
I)aramour. On the occasion, however, of a visit to the residence
of the merchant, I was distinctly told by a member of the
family that the deed of blood was not effected by Suen Lu him-
self, but by the two servants. Suen Lii was taken before the
magistrates in order that he might give an explanation of his
conduct, and receive, not a sentence of death, but, as is usual on
such occasions, the present of a roll of red cloth together with
20,000 cash. At the same time a nominal punishment of twenty
blows was inflicted upon him to expel the murderous spirit
from his breast. During my residence at Cantoii, two or three
cases of a similar nature came under my notice.

This summary vengeance — slaying the guilty with their
"crimes broad blown" — is not confined to the southern province
of Kwangtung. The Chinese Recorder and.Missionarij Journcd for
July 1860 records a case which occurred .in that year at Tient-
sin. In the course of the article the .following remarks are
made with respect to the point we have just been discussing: —

"It is affirmed that the hu3l:)and did not avenge himself un-
assisted. According to some, his son, aged fifteen or sixteen
years, urged him, and even assisted him, to put to death the
\o:.. [. u

226 CHINA. " [chap

guilty j)ersons. It is said the lad himself killed his own mother,
and then told his father to cut off her head. Others believe that
the husband's brothers aided him in his revenfie. All aoree in
stating that nowadays the magistrate never thoroughly investi-
gates the circumstances of a case of adultery and deaths, but, in
order to save himself trouble, readily believes the assertions of
the aggrieved husband who presents himself with two heads for
his inspection.^ Many years ago a man, who brought two heads
to the magistrate's othce, and affirmed them to be those of his
wife and her lover, in reply to the question whether he had any
one to aid him in killing and beheading the parties, frankly
admitted that he did receive assistance. Thereupon the individual
who he said aided him, was arrested and prosecuted. After
that, the husband, in every similar case in this place, has
promptly denied having any assistance. It simplifies matters
very much to believe undoubtedly everything that the wronged
husband affirms in regard to the killing and beheading. While
every one believes that one man could not slaughter two persons
there is no official recognition of such an impossibility, and the
investigation of the circumstances is just as superficial as the
public form, or method of procedure, will allow. The husband
is regarded in law and in public sentiment as only having done
his' duty in putting to death the guilty. His character is above
reproachful comment."

But Chinese husbands do not always resort in such cases to
so vindictive a course. The aggrieved husband is frequently
content to summon his servants, and keep the criminal pair
prisoners in the chamber in which they have been taken until
he has received payment on the part of the adulterer of a
heavy fine. Should the latter not have the required sum at
hand, a communication is forwarded either to his parents or
guardians, or to his agents, requesting them to provide the
amount in question without loss of time. If the money is
not forthcoming on so short a notice, they are not unfrequently
called upon to hand over the title-deeds of their own, or of the
offender's property, as security for the payment of the fine
imposed. The husband who exacts a fine is, I believe, expected
to condone the offence of his wife, although doubtless she only

^ Tlie sword is the weapon which Cliiiiese husbands geuerallj- use on such
occasions. Among the boat jiopulation of Canton the guilty couple are some-
times, 1 believe, boimd togetlier and flung into the river.

viii.] AN ADULTEEESS AND HER TARAMOUR. 227

remains in the family in tlie position of a doniestic servant.
If the adulterer be a poor man, the husband deprives him of
his tail, and orders him to be severely flogged through the princi-
pal streets of the town or village in or near which the criminal
act was committed. The offender is then banished from his
native place, without even the permission to return at stated
periods of the year to worship in tlie ancestral hall of his family,
or at the tombs of his ancestors. The adulteress is sold to a "go-
between," who eventually disposes of her by sale either to a
slave-dealer, or a keej)er of prostitutes, or, it may be, to a poor
labourer who is in search of a wife. Should the husband not
put her away, tlie adulterer cannot be compelled to leave his
home and his friends. In 1870, I saw a young man, apparently
not more than twenty-one years of age, and his paramour
flogged through the streets of one of the suburbs of Canton in
a most unmerciful manner. His arms were bound beliind his
back, and the upper part of his body was naked. Immediately
behind him came the woman, apparently about thirty years of
age. Her arms were also bound behind her liack, and slie ^\•as
receiving quite as severe a castigation. They had been seized
by the woman's husband — a i)layactor — and two of his
friends, and handed over to the elders of the district. At a
meeting of this body which took place at noon on the following
day, some were of opinion that the guilty pair ought to be
bound hand and foot and cast into the Canton river. But the
majority resolved that they should be flogged tln^ough the
principal streets of the suburb. "When the flogging was over
the youth, whose name was Laong-a-Ying, was permitted to
return to the house of his widowed mother. The adulteress was
sold by her husband for the sum of one hundred dollars to the
proprietor of a public brothel. I visited the youth on the day
following that on which he was flogged, and I was shocked
when I saw how fearfully lacerated his back and shoulders
were.

It may be remarked here that the punishment of an adul-
terer by beating him severely with rods, which has always
been practised by the Chinese, was, it would appear from
Diod. Sic. I. 89, 9(), also usual with Egyptians ; while, in

Q 2

228 CHINA. [chap. viii.

Eome under Justinian, adulteresses, as in some instances in
the present day in China, were scourged.

Before passing from the subject of this chapter, which I do
with a sense of relief, I must not omit to add that the crime of
adultery is regarded by the Chinese as more heinous when it
is committed between persons who bear the same surname.

CHAPTER IX.

PARENTS AND CHILDREN.

The birth of a child, like every other important social event in
China, sets a long train of observances in motion. So soon as
the midwife's care begins — for the Chinese consider that the
obstetric art ought only to be practised by females^ — some of the
members of the family engage in the worship of Ivum-Fa. In
cases of severe labour, a Taouist priest is called in, who repeats
certain prayers, and traces a mystic character with a new pen
upon a piece of yellow paper. The scroll is burned, and the
ashes of it are given to the patient in a cup of water. So soon
as the child is born, the exact hour is noted, to enable the
fortune-teller to cast its horoscope. The midwife puts the um-
bilical cord^ into an urn containing charcoal ashes, which is
carefully sealed and kept. At the end of ten years, it is usually
thrown away ; but in some cases it is kept during the lifetime,
and interred with the remains. Parents believe that if they
were to commit any portion of the body to the ground, the
interment of the child would soon follow. Should the child die
shortly after birth, it is customary to expose the urn on a neigh-
bouring hill, or in a cemetery. I have occasionally stumbled
upon such urns in my walks near Canton.

^ There are a few accoucheurs in China, men who have resorted to this means
of livelihood in their old age ; bnt, as a rule, midwives are employed.

^ Sometimes the umbilical cord is baked, and given in the form of a powder
to the infant as an antidote against small-pox. Several years ago a physician in
Szechuen wrote a treatise recommending its use in this ^^•av.

230 CHINA. [chap.

The child is at once washed witii water, in which a herb
called by tlie Chinese Kum-Ngan-Fa, or the gold and silver
flower plant, the rind of green ginger, and the leaves of the
whampu and pomeloe trees have been boiled. A custom like
this is referred to in the book of Ezekiel (xvi. 4). The chikl
is then wrapped in swaddling clothes, also an ancient Jewish
custom. These are simply bands that closely confine the limbs.
On the third day the infant is again washed in aromatic water.
On this occasion the near relatives are invited to attend, and
when " baby " has been washed they sit down to a repast, the
especial feature of which is pork-patties, and balls of flour with
sugar in the centre. The food of the patient consists chiefly
of fowls, fine rice, and ginger-wine. Duck's eggs also form an
item of her diet. These are also given, together with jars of
ginger-wine, as birth-gifts to her relatives and friends. On her
recovery the lady receives in return presents of silk emljroi-
dered work.

Amongst the upper classes, it is not usual for the husband to
have an interview with his wife until a month after the birth of
the child; and no visitor can be received at the house during
this time. A large bunch of evergreens is suspended above the
principal enti\ance of the house to intimate this ; and visitors upon
seeing it do not stop even to leave their cards. All persons
residing in the house are regarded as -unclean until the month
has expired. The same rule applies to persons entering the
house during the period in question. The members of such a
I'amily are, of course, not allowed to enter any of the public
temples. At the close of the month, the mother washes her
body, as a rite of piu-ification, with water in which leaves of the
l)omeloe tree have been boiled. The father having worshipped
the tablets of his ancestors, repairs, together with one of his
wife's handmaidens, to a temple — the Temple of Longevity is
frequently selected — ^witli the view of thanking the gods for
having given him a son. Until one hundred diiys have expired,
the mother is required to remain at home. This custom reminds
one of the Hebrew mother, who, by the law of IMoses, was
required to stay at home for about forty days after the birth of
a male child, and about seventy days after the birth of a female

IX.] ]\[11N-YUT. ■2?>l

child. ^ ^YitIl the Chinese, as was the case among the Hebrews,
the ground of the restriction lies in the mother being regarded
as unclean. At the close of this period, she repairs with her
chikl to a temple. Very often the temple is one in honour of
Kum-Fa, and the child is dedicated to the goddess. If the
mother has previously prayed for offspring to Koon-Yam, or to
Tien-How, she repairs, of course, to the temple where her
prayers were offered. When the child is one mouth old, ho
receives an infantile name. His head is then shaved for the first
time, and the ceremony, which is called Mnn-Yut is, in the case
of wealthy families, attended with much rejoicing. All the
male and female members of the family are present in their
holiday robes, and the infant makes his appearance in a dress of
a bright red colour. The barljer who operates is generally an
old man, the Chinese regarding it as auspicious that he should
liave reached a patriarchal age. He is dressed specially for the
occasion, and receives more than his usual fee. In many cases,
however, the motlier or grandmotlier of the child prefer to do
the shaving themselves. The hair is \vrapped up in paper, and
carefully preserved.. When the barber has done his woric, an
aged man, hired for the office, next advances, and placing his
hand on the head of the little one, exclaims, " ]\Iay long life be
thy portion." Tliose present then sit down to a liberal repast,
and the little hero of the party is made to taste a very smnll
piece of a rice flour cake presented by his grandmother. All
who have bestowed gifts upon the child are invited to this
banquet. Such presents consist of wearing apparel, bracelets,
anklets, &c., &c. The infant receives on the occasion a red
bedstead, a red chair, and a cap, on wliich are small golden, or
silver, or copper figures of Buddha, or eight figures representing
the eight angels. For the figures in question, letters representing
old age or wealth, are occasionally substituted. The child is not
permitted to rest on the bedstead until the father has consulted
the calendar, and selected a lucky day for the purpose. A coat
of many colours- is presented to a favourite child by its parents.

^ See Lev. xii. 2-5.

- That the Jews liad a similar custom i.s, of course, apparent from tlic narrative
of the life of .Joseph. "A garment of divers colours " was also the dre^s of
"king's daughters that weie virgins."

232 ■ CHINA.' [c}i.u\

It is supposeil to protect the infant from evil spirits, by diverting
their attention from tlie wearer. The almanac is also consulted
to ascertain what things must be kept out of the cliild's sight.
It sometimes sets forth that it is unlucky for infants to touch
or see articles made of bamboo during a certain month. Some-
times the prohibited articles are of iron or copper. AVhatever
the almanac proscribes is either removed or covered up.

The first visit the child pays is to its grandmother ; and the
day after the Mun-Yut is often selected for this. The aged dame
bestows upon her little grandchild a gift consisting of four
chickens, four onions, sticks of sugar-cane, two cabbages, and a
quantity of rice-husks. The vegetables enumerated being very
quick in attaining maturity, imply her desire for the rapid
growth of the little one. Tlie rice-husks signify her wish that
the mind of her grandchild may readily receive instruction, and
that education may result in scholarship. '^Vhen the child is
one or two years of age, or at the time when it first begins to
walk, it is presented with a pair of shoes called ]\Iow-Yee-Kai,
or kitten shoes. They resemble a cat's face at the toes, and
are supposed to render the child as surefooted as a cat.

The female children of Chinese parents are, in some instances,
put to death. IMauy reasons are assigned for a practice so
wicked and unnatural. Poor people plead their poverty as an
excuse. They contend that it is better to put their infant
daughters to death than be obliged, as is, alas, the case with
many, to sell them as slaves, or for the base purposes of pros-
titution. Infanticide, however, is not invariably confined to the
poor, as the reader will learn from what I have said in another
chapter on the subject of Chinese foundling hospitals. But
though it is more or less practised by the nation, some Chinese
regard the crime as one of a most diabolical nature. Let us
take a case to illustrate the phases of national feeling with
regard to it. In the spring of the year 1872, a woman who
resided in the western suburb of Canton was seen by a
neighbour to drown her adopted female cluld in the Wong-
sha creek. The neighl)our informed the elders of the district
of the murder, and the accused was immediately seized, and
imprisoned in the back room of a neighbouring temple. Ou the

IX.] THE CUSTOM OF CoMlTlESSLXG THE FEET. 233

following clay she -was arraigned before the elders, and excused
herself on the ground that the child was sickly. On the en-
treaties of her husliand, who. in the most importunate manner,
begged for her pardon, they liberated the nuirderess, for by no
other name can she be designated. The elders were thus lenient,
although a governor-general, who some twenty years before had
ruled over the united pro-\^inces of Kwangtung and Kwangsi,
had issued an edict declaring that all mothers found guilty of a
crime so unnatural and so diabolical as infanticide, would be
severely punished. In 1848, the chief-justice or criminal judge
of Kwang-tung issued an edict, in which he condemned it in
very strong terms. In this edict the attention of the people was
directed to the teaching of Nature, with the view of rej)roaching
them for such acts of barbarity. " You should," he said, " con-
sider that insects, fish, birds, and beasts, all love what they
produce. On leaving the womb they are as weak as a hair, and.
can you endure instantly to compass your offspring's death ? "

The custom of compressing the feet of female children is
much practised. ]\Iany reasons have been given for the ol)serv-
ance of this foolish custom. Some regard it as oricfinatin.^- in a
desire to mark the characteristic which eminently distinguishes
the Chinese from the Tartars and llakkas. Tlie latter from the
earliest times have been nomadic. The Chinese have always
been children of the soil — naturally adscripti glcbcc. In the
northern provinces I noticed that nearly all the women had
contracted feet ; and the same may be said of the island of
Formosa. In some other portions of the empire the custom
does not prevail to the same extent. The process of binding the
feet, generally done with bandages of cloth, is commenced when
the child is five or six years old. It is at first very painful, and
the child cries liitterly for days. In some instances the feet are
compressed to such an extent as to render walking almost im-
possible. It is not unusual to see women Mith small feet riding
along tlie high roads on the backs of their female attendants.
When houses are on fire, the female inmates who have small feet
often perish from sheer helplessness.

Tliere is apparently no law to restrict parents in the exercise
of authority over their children. They can even sell them ; and

234 CHINA.

[chap.

in some cases sous are taken as bondsmen by creditors, for debts
Avhicli have been contracted by their fathers. Sometimes, with
the view of relieving their parents from pecuniary embarrass-
ments, children voluntarily sell themselves as bondsmen or
slaves. The similarity which exists in this respect between
the ancient Jews and the Chinese of to-day is very striking.
Amongst the Jews children were often taken as bondsmen for
debts contracted by their parents (2 Kings iv. 1, Isaiah 1. 1,
Neh. V. 5) ; and a father had unlimited power over his children,
even when they had attained manhood (Gen. xxi. 21, Exod. xxi.
9, 10, 11, Judges xiv. 2). The power of a Chinese father over
his daughter is still greater than that wdiich he can exercise over
his sons ; and here again the history of the Je\^'s furnishes ns
with a parallel. A Jewish father could set aside a sacred vow
made by his daughter, whereas he had no power to do so in the
■case of a son (jSTumbers xxx. 4). Chinese parents are evidently
great believers in the maxim that to spare the rod is to spoil the
child. Thus, though they may sometimes be seen showing much
love towards their children, at other times they may be observed
chastising them very severely. I have frequently seen Chinese
mothers beating their children with great severity. Should a
child die under chastisement, the parents are not called upon to
answer for their conduct before any tribunal. Among the boat
population on the Canton river, I have seen mothers when very
angry with their children, deliberately throw them into the
river, and when the children on rising to the surface clung to
the sides of the boats, sometimes the infuriated mothers pushed
them off into the current again. I once witnessed a very alarm-
ing scene of this nature. A youth belonging to a ferry boat
which plied on the Canton river, had gone ashore to gamble at a
fruit-stall, and lost more than he could afford to pay. Tlie
keeper uf the fruit-stall threatened to settle the matter by taking
a portion of his w'earing apparel. The youth strongly objected
to this, and requested that his parents might be sent for. When
his mother came she paid the debt, but dragged the offender on
board her boat, and then immediately cast him headlong into
the stream. The youth when he rose to the surface of the water
clung to the sides of the boat, and most earnestly begged for

IX.] PARENTAL SUPREMACY. 235

mercy. The enraged mother, paying no heed to his entreaties,
again and again pushed him back, till at last I felt compelled to
interfere, lest the lad should perish. There were several other
boats near at the time, and their crews evidently thought that
the offender was only getting what he deserved. Amongst the
lower orders, chastisement is sometimes inflicted upon adults.
Parents punish their sons long after they have reached manhood,
and aged mothers beat married daughters of thirty years of age
and upwards. I remember seeing in Hang-chow a mother of
sixty beating her son, a man wha had reached the age of thirty.
The young man, I learned, was a drunkard, and in order to
gratify his love of drink, ^vas in the habit of pilfering the
earnings of his mother, who owned a large siik-weaving factory.
On the occasion in question, he was returning from a carousal,
and when the old lady saw liim, she uttered a loud shriek, and
rushed upon him with the fury of a tiger. Seizing him by the
queue with one hand, she belaboured him most unmercifully
with the otlier. A crowd instantly thronged the entrance-door
of the house, but no one interfered. The erring son received his
castigation with meek submission.

The Chinese regard the infliction of punishment on children,
when it is called for, as an important duty on the part of
parents. One may sometimes find in the residence of a
Chinese gentleman one of his sons walking with fetters on his
ankles. Such a punishment is inflicted for gambling, or other
vicious propensities. I saw a youth so shackled in a house in
Canton. Though evidently a source of much trouble and anxiety
to his parents, he did not appear at all ashamed of himself.
Besides such punishments, the offending youth is sometimes
not allowed to receive the customary present of pork v»diich
is annually given to each member of a Chinese clan or family
on his return from worshipping at the tombs of his ancestors.
These presents are bought by funds arising from the ancestral
altars, and they are regarded as the gifts of the ancestors. To be
deprived of them is, therefore, considered a most grievous
punishment. Sometimes a son who is a source of much trouble
to his parents is expelled from his home. I was acquainted
with a family which consisted of the parents and two sons. The

236 CHIXA. • [chap.

elder son, who was a source of great grief to his parents, was
driven by them from his home, and I saw this youtli, who was
only fourteen years old, asking alms in the streets of Canton.
He ran away on first seeing me. I saw him twice afterwards
begging in the same street. The parents assured me that they
had been obliged to drive him away in consequence of his
vicious habits. Eventually they received him back on his pro-
mising to amend his ways. Again, a military oflicer M'ho resided
in Canton, and with ^^hose friends I was acquainted, had an
adopted son, M'hom he turned adrift on account of the lad's
gambling propensities. The youth used to pawn the clothes off
his back, and steal any articles of value within his reach. He
also was received back on condition of amendment, but at once
took to his evil ways again. The father then ordered him to be
bound, and in order to make him remember how much pain and
sorrow others had suffered from his conduct, inflicted a severe
sabre cut on his thigh. The wound was besmeared with salt,
and the lad was once more driven from what might have been a
happy home. He eventually became a Buddhist monk. Some-
times parents cast their disobedient children into a public prison.
Prisoners of this class are commonly bound by chains to large
stones, and exposed daily, together with other offenders, at the
principal gates of the prison. In the prison of the Pun-yu
magistrate at Canton, I found a young gentleman incarcerated
for having, in a state of intoxication, threatened to stab his
uncle, who stood to him in loco parentis, his parents being dead.
When I first saw him in prison, the youth was dressed in silk
robes. Before he had been many months in prison, he became
as filthy and repulsive in appearance as his fellow-prisoners. I
frequently visited him, and he earnestly begged me to intercede
for him with his aunt, who, he assured me, was the only person
who would take pity on him. I was requested to pay no atten-
tion to his entreaties. I saw him again on board the British
barque Red Ridinfj Hood (then at Canton) when I was preaching
to her European crew. I was in the act of going over the side
of the ship, when in a Chinese who, dressed as an ordinary
coolie, came forward in a most graceful manner and saluted me,
1 recognized the unfortunate vouth. He informed me that his

IX.] rUXISHMENTS OF THK UNFILIAL. 237

aunt had removed him fi'om prison, on his promising to go as a
coolie to the British West Indies. A somewhat simihir case was
that of a very respectable tradesman of the western suburb of
Canton, wlio cast his second son into the prison of the Xamhoi
magistrate, where the wayward young man lay in chains for four
months. On tlie intercession of his mother, he was released
only to be sent, however, to the neigiibouring kingdom of Cochin
China.

Over such sons Chinese mothers, as do Christian mothers, weep,
and daily intercede for their pardon. I remember the case of a
mother who had such a son to deplore. His father, a very wealthy
gentleman, had put him in prison because he gambled, smoked
opium, and was of a quarrelsome disposition. The mother was
very urgent in her intercession witli her husband, and spent
days and nights in grief for her son. She used to pray for him
to the spirits of her ancestors, and at the close of each day she
suspended above her door a lighted lantern or lamp, thinking
thereby to hasten the prisoner's return. The punishments in-
flicted upon sons or daughters who beat their parents are in some
instances of a far more severe nature than any I have as yet
recorded. In a case of which I read, where a son, aided by his
wife, had beaten his mother, both oftenders were decapitated.^
The mother of the son's wife was, at the same time, severely
flogged, and then sent into exile. The students of the district
in which the crime occurred were not allowed, during a period
of three years, to attend the literary examinations. Tlie magis-
trates were, one and all, deprived of their offices and banished ;
and the house in which the offender lived was razed to the
ground. This is said to liave taken place during the reign of
Ka-hing. Since then an offence of tliis kind has been visited
with a punishment of almost incredible severity. In 1865, a
man named Chaong An-cliing, aided by his wife Chaong Wong-
shee, flogged his mother. Upon the circumstances being made
known to Tung-chee, in whose reign the crime was perpetrated,
an imperial order was issued, to the effect that the offenders

^ This reminds one of the llosaic law, which decreed that chihlren convicted
of cursing or assaulting their parents should be put to death, (Exod. xxi. 15, 17;
I^v. XX. 9.)

238 CHINA. [chap.

should be flayed alive, that their bodies should then be cast into
a furnace, and their bones, gathered from the ashes and reduced
to a powder, should be scattered to the winds. The order further
directed that the head of the clan to "which the two offenders
belonged, should be put to death by strangulation; that the neigh-
bours living on the right and left of the offenders should, for their
silence and non-interference, each receive a flogging of eighty
blows, and be sent into exile ; that the head or representative of
the graduates of the first degree (or B.A.), among whom the
male offender ranked, should receive a flogging of eighty blows
and be exiled to a place one thousand li distant from his home ;
that the granduncle of the male offender should be beheaded ;
that his uncle and his two elder brothers should be put to death
by strangulation ; that the prefect and the ruler of the district
in Mddch the offenders resided, should for a time be deprived of
their rank ; that on the face of the mother of the female offender
four Chinese characters expressive of neglect of duty towards
her daughter should be tattooed, and that she should be exiled to
a province, the seventh in point of distance from that in Avliich
she was born ; that the father of the female offender, a bachelor
of arts, should not be allowed to take any higher literary degrees,
that he should receive a flogging of eighty blows, and be exiled
to a place three thousand li from that in which he was born ;
that the mother of the male offender should be made to witness
the flaying of her son, but be allowed to receive daily for her
sustenance a measure of rice from the provincial treasurer;
that the son of the offenders (a child) should be placed under
the care of the district ruler, and receive another name ; and,
lastly, that the lands of the offender should for a time remain
fallow. An account of this event was published by the pro-
vincial treasurer of Hupeh — the province in which the crime
was committed — and ordered to be circulated throughout the
empire.

Parricide is regarded as one of the most heinous offences of
"which a man can be found guilty, and is punished by a lingering
death. Indeed, so great is the abhorrence in which this crime
is held, that there is a law which expressly declares that not
only shall the offender be siibgected to a lingering death, but

IX.] • RIGHTS OF ELDEST SONS. 239

that the schoolmaster who instructed him in his youth shall be
decapitated, and that the hones of his grandfathers shall he
exhumed and scattered to the winds. It is also customary to
close the ancestral hall of the clan to which the parricide
belongs, that the spirits of his ancestors may be deprived of
the homage of their posterity. The crime of parricide, how-
ever, is one of very rare occurrence in China. If the Chhiese
can lay claim to any virtue more than another, it is that of
filial piety.

When parents die, tlie eldest son stands in loco ixirc^itis
to his younger brothers, and much respect is paid to him by
them. He rebukes them when they are wayward, and en-
courages them in well-doing. In a case in which a younger
brother had struck his elder brother's wife, it was decided by
the elders of the village to which the parties belonged, that
the elder brother should be permitted to flog the younger
brother. This Was done before them, and to make the punish-
ment more degrading, the implement used was a broomstick.
The Chinese say that a person wdio has been flogged with a
broomstick will be for ever unlucky.

In concluding this chapter, I may observe that it has al\va}'s
appeared to me that the children of Chinese in the upper walks
of life are not, as a rule, robust. This circumstance is, I suppose,
to be attributed in a great measure to the practice of polygamy ;
for among the lower orders of society, whom poverty compels to
be monogamists, the children are vigorous and active.

CHAPTER X.

SERVANTS AND SLAVES.

In all Chinese families of respectability — to use the word in a
limited sense — there is a nnmeroois array of domestic servants.
The male servants in the family of an ordinary Chinese gentle-
man, include, as a rule, a porter, two or three waiting men or
footmen, three or four sedan bearers, and others who are engaged
in keeping the house in a state of general neatness and cleanli-
ness. They are sometimes hired from month to month, and, in
other instances, for a period of six montiis at wages ranging
from three to four or five dollars a man per month. Board and
lodging are of course included in the arrangement. In some
cases, masters add to this clothing, and a sum of money for the
purchase of tobacco and other minor " creature comforts."
Testimonials as .to past good conduct and general ability are, of
course, required from such servants seeking an engagement.
Cooks, and waiting servants in famihes of a lower grade in
society, hire themselves for a period of twelve months at least,
as do also agricultural labourers. For these servants there are
what in England are termed statute hirings, which are held by
the appointment of the local authorities in squares or other
suitable places. At Canton the statute hirings take place from
the first to the fifteenth day of the first month of the year, and
are held in the quadrangle before the temple of Longevity.
The square is on such occasions densely crowded with both
masters and servants, and is enlivened by peep-shows and
exhibitions of various kinds on a small scale. On one side may

CHAP. X.] STREET HIEING OF WORK PEOPLE. 241

be found a cage wliich is concealed from view by an inclosure
of matting, and contains a tiger or a panther. At another point
a large basket containing a fretful porcupine, or a pig with six
legs, or a duck with four feet attracts the curious ; there are also
soup, meat, tea, cake, and fruit stalls at which the hungry and
faint are invited to regale themselves at the trifling expense of
a few cash. Tliere are always plenty of gambling booths at such
gatherings, and many of the servants lose portions, if not the
whole, of their small and hard-earned wages for the past year.

It may be mentioned here that hiring in the open street is
a matter of daily occurrence in Canton and in otlier large cities
in Kwang-tung. In the Gow-chow-ka street of the Honam
suburb of Canton, a large concourse of day labourers assemble
every morning at five o'clock for the purpose of being hired.
They remain in the street if unhired until noon is far advanced.
In the courtyards of the temples, also, it is not unusual to see
men standing idle at all hours of the day, because "no man hath
hired them." In the Tai-ping-Kai, or Ta-tung-Kai street of the
same suburb, journeymen carpenters and bricklayers may be
seen waiting to be hired from five o'clock till nine a.m. The car-
penters form a line on one side of the street, the bricklayers on
the other. They are as a rule liired by public contractors. The
wages which they receive are very small, being not more than a
quarter of a dollar and three meals per diem, to each man. The
workmen, also, stipulate that at the time of the new, and again
at the full moon, and also on the ninth and twenty-third days
of each lunar month, extra food, or its equivalent in money shall
be given to them.

To return to the position of domestic servants in China. In
the families of Chinese gentlemen, female servants generally,
and male servants in some instances, are the property of their
masters by purchase. In the houses of wealthy citizens, it is
not unusual to find from twenty to thirty slaves attending upon
a family. Even citizens in the humbler walks of life deem it
necessary to have each a slave or two. The price of a slave
varies, of course, according to age, health, strength, and general
]>ersonal appearance. The average price is from fifty to one
jiundrod dollars, but in lime of wnr. or revolution, poor parent^;,

VOL. I. 1{

2i2 CHINA. . [chap.

on the verge of starvation, offer tlieir sons and daughters for sale
at remarkably low prices. I remember instances of parents,
rendered destitute by the marauding bands who infested the
two southern Kivangs in 1854-55, offering to sell their
daughters in Canton for five dollars apiece. The ranks of slaves
are also recruited from the families of gamblers, whose losses
not unfrequently compel them to sell their children. Amongst
the many Chinese friends and acquaintances I made during my
residence at Canton, one, an old man named Lum Chi-kee, was
what may be termed a slave-broker ; and I remember two bright-
looking youths being sold to him by their profligate father, who
had gambled his means away. The eldest lad fetched fifty
dollars, and the younger forty. The old slave-broker offered one
of the youths to me at the advanced price of 350 dollars. The
usual price of an ordinary able-bodied male slave is about 100
dollars. Persons when sold as slaves generally fall first of all
into the hands of brokers or go-betweens. Such characters are
either aged men or women. Before buying slaves, a dealer keeps
them for a month on trial. Should he discover that they talk
in their sleep, or afford any indications of a weakness of system,
he either offers a small sum for them, or declines to complete
the purchase. This precaution is necessary, as in re-selling a
slave the broker is often required to give a warranty of sound-
ness. A slave is carefully examined by an intending purchaser
especially as to any signs of leprosy, a disease which prevails
amongst the Chinese, and of which they naturally have a great
horror. The broker is made to take the slave into a dark room,
and a blue light is burned. Should the face of the slave assume
a greenish hue in this light, a favourable opinion is entertained.
Should it show a reddish colour it is concluded that the blood is
tainted by this loathsome disease.

The slavery to which these unfortunate persons are subject,
is perpetual and hereditary, and they hav^e no parental authority
over their offspring. The great-grandsons of slaves, however,
can, if they have sufficient means, purchase their freedom.
Slaves are designated as " noo " and " pee," the former being
applied to male, and the latter to female slaves. These terms
clearly indicate, if I mistake not, that those to whom they are

X.] TREATMENT OF FEMALE SLAVES. 243

applied are members of the families of their respective masters.
Formerly slaves assumed the surname of their masters ; but \ihe
custom is now obsolete. Slaves although regarded as members
of the family, arc not recognised as members of the general
community. They cannot, for example, sue in courts of laws.
In short, they are outside the pale of citizenship, and within
the reach of tJie avarice, or hatred, or lust of their masters.
Masters can sell female slaves either to other gentlemen as con-
cubines or to the proprietors of brothels as public prostitutes ; or
they can, I apprehend, use them for the gratification of their own
lusts. Occasionally a master marries one of his slaves. Should
he do so, he must give notice of the event to his friends and neigh-
bours, who come to the wedding to make merry. The mavriage
is not proposed to the slave by her master, but by his wife, her
mistress. Indeed it is not unusual for a barren spouse, if she
have an amiable and good-looking slave, to suggest to her
husband that he should take the girl as a second wife. This
custom reminds one of the familiar episode in Scripture history,
in which Sarah, finding herself growing old, induced her lord to
marry her bondmaid, llagar, in the hope that the Divine pro-
mise of offspring, which was apparently void, so far as she
lierself was concerned, might not fail of fulfilment. Such
marriages take place also on other grounds. Thus a lady
named Tung Lou-shee, who resided in tlie western suburb of
Canton, proposed that her husband should marry a young and
prepossessing slave, although she herself had borne several
children to him. She did so on the ground of her own growing
infirmities, and stipulated that the husband and his youthful
bride should reside in a neighbouring house. The husband
accordingly took the slave as a second wife.

JNIasters seem to have the same uncontrolled power over their
slaves that parents have over their children. Tiius a master is
not called to account for the death of a slave, although it is the
result of punishment inlUcted by him. In 1853, I saw in the
Shap-sam-poo street, of the western suburb of Canton, tlie
corpse of a female slave who had been beaten to death by her
mistress. Wlien the slave was supposed to be in articulo mortis,
Ik'I' mistress hatl given orders to have lier removed to the Beggar's

244 CHINA. ■ [cuAP.

Square, as foreigners call it, wliicli is in front of the Mee-
chow temple, in order that she might die there. The policemen,
wishing to extort money from this monster of cruelty, ordered
tlie dying slave to be taken back and placed at the doorstep of
the house. Finding that her house was daily attracting crowds
of inquisitive onlookers, the mistress gave the policemen the
sum they demanded, and the corpse — for the girl died within a
few minutes after she had been placed at the door — was removed
for interment to an adjoining cemetery. Again, in 18G9, a
gentleman of the family Ho, who resided in the Honam
suburb of Canton, upon convicting his slave, a little boy of the
lender age of fourteen, of a theft, immediately bound the little
fellow hand and foot, and cast him headlong into the Canton
liver. The ao-onizin'T shrieks of the lad attracted the attention
of the officer in command of one of H.M.'s gunboats, Avhich
was at anchor in the river in question. He fortunately suc-
ceeded in saving the lad, who was eventually forwarded to
the allied commissioners — the city being at the time in the
occupation of the allied armies of Great Britain and France.
Orders were at once issued for the appreliension of Ho, and the
prisoner was handed over to the Chinese authorities, who
treated the matter with perfect indifference. They were dispo.sed
to let him go free, on the ground that he had violated no law.
At the command of the allied commissioners, however, he was
detained in the prison of the Namhoi magistrate. I saw this
man several times in the prison, where, of course, he was
obliged to associate with criminals of the very worst kind. In
a case which is reported in the British Consular Trade Reports
fitr 1869-70, an old woman who had been guilty of almost in-
credible cruelty to a young girl, one of the inmates of her
brothel, pleaded that she could do what she liked with her slave.
Yice-Consul Forrest, who reports the case, insisted upon pun-
ishment being inflicted, and the accused had her ears pierced
with arrows, and was carried through the streets accompanied
by a crier to proclaim her enormities. She was flogged at in-
tervals, and eventually died from the torture. This woman,
if she can be called a woman, had ploughed away the elbow
and kiue-jnints of the girl witli a pair of Chinese scissors,

x.] KUNAWAY .^LAVKS. 245

Lecause slie Lad rel'iuied to receive the advances of a Chinese
coolie. Other portions of her body had been siniiJarly treated,
and the girl died almost immediately after leaving the court.
The police had much trouble in preventing the neighbours from
lynching the woman.

The work which devolves upon female slaves in China is that
of attending upon the ladies of the liousehold. They make
excellent ladies'-maids, and iu that capacity require to be
adepts in the art of hairdressing and applying cosmetics. l\'ot
uufrequently, also, a female slave is employed to carry her
mistress on her back, when a lady is possessed of very small
feet; and it is surprising to find iu country districts what
distances female slaves will carry their small-footed mistresses,
at a jog-trot. As nursemaids they are, as a rule, very careful of
their charges, and show great affection for them.

Although masters hold their slaves so entirely at their
disposal, and sometimes lamentably abuse their power, I believe
that in all respectable Chinese families slaves are treated with
great consideration. I cannot, however, say the same with
respect to female slaves who reside as maids-of- all-work in the
houses of persons who are not in what are termed easy circum-
stances. The slaves of such families not uufrequently run
away, in consequence of harsh treatment and hard work. Of
the truth of this statement I have evidence iu the shape of a
collection which I made of Chinese placards. In the absence of
public newspapers these are the great medium for the com-
munication of general information. Such as are notices of the
desertion of slaves contain a full and particular description of
the general appearance of the runaways, and state the rewards
to be paid on their recapture. In one of them the advertiser, in
describing the features of his fugitive slave, observes that her face
is very similar to that of a cat. I have frequently heard bell-
men in the streets of large Chinese cities describing in general
terms the personal appearances of certain runaway slaves, and
offering, at the same time, sums of money for their recapture.
I ought, however, to explain that a bellman in China does not
use a bell, but a gong. This is suspended from a pole carried
between himself and an assistant. Attached to the gong is a

24G CHINA. . [chap.

small paper banner upon wliicli the particulars of the case are
written in very legible characters.

When female slaves run away it is not unusual for their
mistresses to attach a garment belonging to the fugitive to a
hand mill-stone, which they then turn round, mentioning at the
same time in an audible tone of voice the name of the runaway.
Should this ridiculous ceremony prove ineffectual, mistresses
resort to the temple of Sin-Foong or leader of the army. The
votary asks his help, and ties to the leg of the idol's horse, a
piece of string to bind the slave with.

As might be expected, slavery gives rise to a great deal of
kidnapping. Female children, in particular, are seized and
taken to a distance from their homes in order that, wdien they
liave grown up, they may be sold as slaves, or, in some instances,
to the proprietors of brothels. Kidnappers of children are
severely dealt wdth. Women taking female children are some-
times flogged through the streets. Boys as well as girls are
kidnapped and sold as slaves in the north of China. Men con-
victed of kidnapping boys are, in certain cases which I need not
specify, punished with death. The chief of the band is decapi-
tated, the second put to death by strangulation, and tlie others,
who are regarded as guilty in a lesser degree, are transported for
life. In the northern provinces, and especially at Tientsin, which
seems to be the very Sodom of the empire, the stringent laws
which are enacted with regard to the nefarious purposes for
which they are kidnapped are evidently of no great force.

In the royal palace at Pekin eunuchs are regularly employed.
Their duties are connected with the imperial zenana. The head
eunuch, who is aj^pointed by the emperor, and who is generally
an aged man, and one in whom much confidence may be placed,
is designated as the Tsong-Koon, or superintendent of the
seraglio. It is the privilege of this functionary to receive all
necessary commands from the empress in person. He stands,
to all intents and purposes, in the same position to the Chinese
empress as that in which we learn from the book that bears
her name Hatach stood to Queen Esther; while the other
eunuchs, of whom there are a great many, occupy a subordinate
position corresponding to that held by the chamberlains alluded

X.] THE SLAVES OF THE UPPER CLASSES. 247

to in the same book (iv. 4.) When the emperor resorts to the
temples to worship, his eunuchs are in attendance, and assist
him in kneeling before the altars.

The privilege of entering the imperial harem affords these
functionaries opportunities of conferring with the sovereign, and
by ingratiating themselves into his good graces they sometimes
rise to positions of eminence. In the year 1868, one of this
miserable class came in this way to exercise a very mischievous
ascendency.^ Like better men before him, however, he suddenly
fell, and at last died at the hands of the common executioner.

In all Chinese families of " the upper ten thousand," an inti-
macy exists between masters and men-servants on the one hand,
and mistresses and female servants on the other. Servants not
nnfrequently make suggestions in reference to the well-being of
the family, and in many instances, domestic matters of a grave
nature are discussed before them. My first experience in this
respect surprised me. On the occasion of one of many visits
which I paid to the district city of Fa-yune, the principal
magistrate of the place having been informed that one of my
companions was an English physician, invited us to call at his
residence, stating that he was anxious to consult the foreign
medical practitioner with regard to the health of his son-in-law.
On going to his house we were at once conducted to the visitors'
hall, where he invited us to sit down and partake of his hospi-
tality. We had scarcely taken our seats, when the son-in-law, an
emaciated looking man of twenty-six years of age, came in, and —
to our astonishment — apparently all the servants of the family.
I concluded that they had come to see the foreign visitors.
But when the chief magistrate proceeded to call the attention of
our companion to the state of his son-in-law's health, — the young-
man was an opium-smoker — grave suggestions w'ere, at frequent
intervals, made by many of the principal servants and slaves.
Further experience taught me that such scenes in Chinese fami-
lies are by no means uncommon. Such freedom of intercourse

^ That eunuchs held posts of honour and distinction under Hebrew sovereigns
is clear from the following passages of Holy Writ : — 1 Kings xxii. 9 ; 2 Kings
viii. 6 ; 2 Kings ix. 32, 33 ; 2 Kings xx. 18 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 11 ; Jer. xxxviii. 7 ;
Jer. xxxix. 16 ; and Jer. xli. IC.

248 Cm^A. ■ [chap. X.

between masters and servants lias always been characteristic of
Oriental life. When King David, on hearing of the death of his
child, ceased to fast and weep, his servants were ready with the
question, " What thing is this tliou hast done ? " The little
Israelitish captive not only suggested to her Syrian mistress that
Naaman should ask " the prophet that is in Samaria " to cure
him of his leprosy, but when he despised the instructions he
received from the prophet, she expostulated with the distin-
guished general. Ulysses when he returned after an absence
of several years to his home was kissed by all his slaves.

Slavery may be said to exist in a limited form in China if we
compare it with what was once practised in the British West
Indies and the United States ; but it cannot be too soon num-
bered among the abuses of the past. No one can dwell in a
country in which slavery, even in a mild form, is practised, with-
out discovering its degrading and debasing effects upon the mind.
Homer did not put it too strongly when he said that a slave is
only half a man.

CHAPTEE XI.

FESTIVALS.

Public festivals in China are as a rnle in honour of the deities,
and the occasions of this kind, as well as others of a private
nature, which are observed as holidays, are so numerous that,
although the Chinese have no Sabhath, or weekly day of rest,
I am disposed to think few nations, if any, have more days of
recreation in the course of the year. It opens with the San-
Lin, or New Year's festival, the Pacchanalia of the Chinese.
As the Chinese year commences from the new moon nearest
to lo'^ of Aquarius, into which sign the sun passes in the
month of January, the festival takes pjlace towards the end of
this month. It usually extends over a period of from one to
three weeks, and may be regarded as commencing several days
before the close of the Old Year. During these days everybody
who can devotes himself to pleasure, and the mandarins only
attend to business of a very pressing character. With others
it is a time of bustle and excitement, which increases as
the last day of the year approaches. " Merchants and shopmen
hurry to and fro closing accounts and collecting debts ; and
wretched is thought the plight of the man who. cannot close his
annual term with a satisfactory balance on the favourable side.
The retail houses overflow with customers, as it is an object
with sellers to clear off their goods as quickly as possible, and
with purchasers to supply their wants at an unusually moderate
rate. The quantity of money that circulates in consequence
as the year wanes must be enormous, and in many cases shops

250 CHINA. [cFiAP.

are kept opeu until late ou tlie closing day, and the occupants
may be observed in a feverish state of excitement receiving
money and taking rapid account of their transactions, fearful
lest the new year should dawn upon them ere their books are
properly balanced." In private houses, servants devote them-
selves to " cleaning." When the floors have been washed, they
are covered with carpets. Old scrolls and charms are taken
down to be replaced by fresh ones. The tables, and the antique
wooden chairs which one finds in a Chinese house, are covered
with red cloth embroidered with flowers. The ancestral hall is
decorated with flags and flowers. On the last day of the year,
strips of red paper,^ with characters implying good fortune,
wealth, happiness, and so on, are posted on each side of the
outer doors of the house ; and on the doors themselves are hung
large pictures of two Chinese generals, who, it seems, were of
signal service to an Emperor who reigned more than three
thousand years ago. This Emperor could not sleep, because he
had dreamt that evil spirits entered the palace in the night, and
his minister's protestations to the contrary failed to reassure
him. He ordered these generals to keep watch at the gates
during the " witching " hours, and his slumbers were once more
undisturbed. They are now regarded, accordingly, as the gods
of the portals, and their portraits are always placed on the doors
at the New Year. Poor people who are unable to purchase the
portraits fix placards with the names of the generals to the
doors,

A few days before the New Year, generally on the 28th or
29th of the twelfth month, what is called the Tuen-Nin, or
AVa-shun, takes place. This ceremony, which is observed by
all classes of society, consists in giving thanks to the tutelary
deity of the house for his preservation of the dwelling and its
inmates during the year. At the close of worship, a dinner is
given at which all the inmates are present. In wealthy families,
this banquet is on a larger scale, beginning on the 27th and

^ The scrolls are written by calli«;rapliists, generally decayed or unsuccessful
scholars, who, at this season especially, are to be found seated at their little
tables, in the courtyards of temples, public squares, tea-gardens, and by the
roadside. A family in which a death has occurred within the year uses strips of
blue paper with inscriptions expressive of mourning.

XI.] NEW YP:Ali CEREMONIES AND REJOICINGS. 251

extending to the last night of the yea,r. On that night, from
six until nine o'clock, hoys from eight to thirteen or fourteen
years of age, traverse the streets calling out " Mi-sow," or, I sell
my folly, or I sell my lazy habits to another, in order that next
year I may be wiser. This custom is very common in Canton,
in the provinces of Hoouam and Iloopeli. Erom eight o'clock
until nine, respectable people observe a superstition called
Keng-Ting, which means learning by the mirror. The person
seeking a sign, places a sieve upon an empty stove, and upon
the sieve a basin of water and a looking-glass. He then silently
steals out, and listens attentively to what the first passers-by
are saying. Should the words be of good import, he concludes
that good success awaits him throughout the coming year.
Amongst the lower orders, the superstition is known as Chong-
Kwa-Tow, to meet the fortunate head.

Throughout the course of the last day of the year, the
members of a family frequently prostrate themselves before the
ancestral altars of the house, and the night is specially devoted
to religious observances. Lamps are placed in front of the
altars, and the servants replenisli them with oil, that they may
be found burning on the dawn of the first day of the year. At
night, the male members of the family proceed to one or more
of the temples in the neighbourhood to worship the gods. The
elders also are present attired in their rich robes of silk, and at
midnight they worship on behalf of the people. The temples
are well lighted, and as each votary pours out his libation and
presents his prayers and oJEferings of food and paper money,
three or four minstrels stationed at the door discourse strains of
discordant music. These offerings are attended with a salvo
of fire-crackers, the temples are filled with smoke, and the smell
of gunpowder renders it difficult for one to continue a spectator
of the proceedings.

On stepping into the streets, however, the visitor finds the
same stifling odour, as people after worshipping their Lares and
Penates, or household gods, rush to the doors of their houses,
and discharge fire-crackers to terrify evil spirits. On such
occasions, the inhabitants of a large city like Canton seem to
vie with one another as to which of them will let off most

252 CIIJXA. ' [, HAi'.

lire-crackers, and make tlie greatest noise. This goes on usitil
sunrise ; and many Chinese have an idea that keeping awake
during the last night of the old and watching the first sunrise
of the new year, for ten or twelve years in succession, insures
long life. Beggars are very active on this niglit. Wretched
and forlorn, they may be seen traversing the wards in which
they dwell, carrying baskets containing small placards on which
are written the Chinese characters, Hai-moon-tai-kat. These
imply, " May great good fortune flow into the house on the
opening of the door," and a placard is affixed to the door of
each house. In the morning they call at the houses they have
l^lacarded and demand alms. On New Year's Day, the streets,
thronged during the night, are comparatively deserted. All the
offices, shops, and warehouses are closed, as many of their then
occupants are gone to their homes in the country to congratu-
late their relatives and friends. Those who remain may be seen
running to and fro in holiday dresses. Sedan-chairs, with well-
dressed gentlemen, or richly-attired ladies, pass along the streets
in quick succeseion. To the poles of the ladies' chairs long
sticks of sugar-cane are attached. These are lucky presents for
the ladies to whom visits are being paid. As a rule, however,
they are not removed from the poles, the will to give them
away being taken for the deed. This is an economical way
of making etrennes, or New Year's gifts, and one which, I venture
to say, is quite in keeping with the character of the Chinese.
Amongst Avealthy people, however, presents^ are exchanged at
this great annual festival.

When visitors are received orj New Year's Day, kowtows and
congratulatory wishes are exchanged ; and should they be rela-
tives of the family, they are escorted to the ancestral altar,
where they worship their departed forefathers. Tlie tables in
the reception rooms are covered with sweetmeats of all kinds,
and each guest is served with a cup of tea, in wdiich an almond
or an olive has been placed as an emblem of good fortune.
The young people of a family take their part in the cere-

^ It is also usual for the heads of families to make small presents of money
and wearing apparel to their domestic servants. Shopkeepers forward smiill
presents to their regular customers in grateful acknowledgment of their patronage.

xi.j IMPERIAL NEW YEAR CUSTOMS. 253

monies of the day, and after worshipping at the ancestral altar,
are receive! hy their parents, and elder brothers, to whom tliey
pay marked homage. Afterwards they go to the houses of
their schoolmasters and tutoi's, to whom their lioniage is not
less reverential.

On New Year's Day, civil and military ]nandarins of all
grades pay congratulatory visits to the governors-general of
their respective provinces. At Pekin, the princes and principal
officers of state repair to the imperial palace to make obeisance
to the Emperor, who, seated on his Dragon Tln-one, receives
them with more than ordinary urbanity. According to the
letter of the law, all officers of state throughout the empire,
ought to be present. As tins is impracticable, they resort, at four
o'clock in the morning, to temples called Man-Chaong-Koon, or
emperor's temples, of which one is usually to be found in every
walled city. In each of these there is a throne, said to be an
exact model of the Dragon Throne at Pekin. It is approached
by nine steps, and on it is a tablet ^ bearing an inscription to
the following effect — "May the reigning sovereign rule over the
land ten thousand years, and ten times ten thousand years."
The mandarins, as a mark of reverence, perform the kowtow at
a considerable distance from the throne. This ceremony was
observed on a grand scale at Canton, in 18G1. The mandarins
then appeared in their court dresses, which they had not worn
since 1857, owing to the empire being at war with England and
France. A law prohibits officials appearing in full dress when
the country is at war with another power. At the conclusion of
the ceremony, the mandarins take off the appendages to their
dress which etiquette requires them to wear in the imperial
presence, and repair to worship at the respective temples of
Confucius, Man-chaong, and Kwan-te.

On the second day of the year, also at a very early hour of
the morning, the officials proceed to the temples of Lung Wong,
the Dragon King; Fung-Fo-Shin, the Wind and Fire gods;
Tien-How, the Queen of Heaven; and Shing Wong the Pro-
tector of Walled Cities. On this day, banquets are lield by the

1 Similar tablets are i>larp 1 in all Tarmist and CiuMliist temples, and Moliani-
nieclaii mosques.

254 CHIX.\. • [chap.

Chinese at which a fish called Lee-ya is the principal dainty,
and cockles are served up as a lucky dish.

During the first week of the year it is customary to send
presents of cakes made in the form of balls, and fried in oil,
Orauges, wine, and cocoa fried in oil, are also sent as gifts to
friends. The gifts are borne by women ; who for the nonce are
called either tea-carrying women, or bearers of New Year's tea.
In the course of a walk from Whampoa to Canton, I met once,
several hundreds of these women carrying presents. From the
fourth to the seventh day all spinsters and married women
w^orship Apo, the presiding goddess of the marriage-bed. Sour
ginger, and eggs dyed red, are offered to the goddess ; and in the
case of wealthy persons, roast pork, boiled fowls, and a water
vegetable called by the Chinese Tsze-Koo.^ The seventh day
is especially a ladies' holiday, and on it they resort in large
numbers to public gardens. In the country, it is usual to meet
with troops of them on their way to such places of resort. Some
toddle along on their little feet, supported by female attendants ;
others are carried on the backs of their servants. Av'ith the
Cantonese, the public gardens at Fa-tee are very popular at these
times, and as the approach is by water, the creeks and streams
that surround them are gay with flower-boats filled with richly
dressed ladies, who have, as usual, been unsparing in their use
of cosmetics. Great anxiety is manifested by all classes re-
specting the state of the weather during the first ten days of
the year. Should it be propitious, men, horses, cows, dogs,
pigs, goats, fowls, cereal crops, fruits, and vegetables will flourish
and abound. I need scarcely add that soothsayers and fortune-
tellers reap a rich harvest during the first month of the year.

In Canton, and the province of which it is the capital, lan-
tern markets are held from the first to the fifteenth day of the
month. The public squares are chosen for the purpose, and
the lanterns, which seem actually to crowd them, are of all kinds
of fantastic shapes, resembling beasts, fishes, flowers, and fruits.
Amongst the lantern buyers are men to whom children have
been born during the year, and who suspend their purchases as
votive offerings in temples near their homes. Men desirous of

^ This 1.=! supposed to be efficacious whon maiTied woi"uen riesire female children.

XI.] LA^^TERN USAGES AND CLAN DINNEES. 255

offspring affix tlieir names and addresses to these lanterns, which
are forwarded to them at the end of the month, having been
first lighted at the ever-burning lamps before the altars. The
messenger who conveys siicli a lantern is accompanied by
minstrels, and presents with it a lettuce in the centre of wdiich
is placed a burning candle with two onions at the base. A dinner
is given on the occasion of this ceremony, and the lantern is
suspended in front of the ancestral altar. At the lantern
markets, wax figures of men, wliich are called Sam-Sing, are
also sold. These are clothed in silk, and are known respectively
as Fok, or happiness ; Lok, or rank ; and Sow, or Longevity.
The Sam-Sing are generally placed by those who purchase them,
above the ancestral altar, or above tliat wliich has been erected
to the god of wealth.

On the evening of the fift,eenth day it is customary in some
parts of the empire for members of a clan to dine together. On
this occasion a large lantern which has been placed, on New
Year's Day, in front of the clan's ancestral altar, is sold by
auction, sometimes at a higli price, to the highest bidder. These
lanterns are procured in shops, and paid for out of lands or
houses with which ancestral altars are endowed. In some parts of
Kwang-tung, a tree with many branches — expressive of the hope
that the clan may never lack representatives — is placed in front
of the altar in the common ancestral hall. Clan dinners are
given in these halls, from the first to the fifteenth day, by those
who have been successful in business during the past year, or
those to whom children have been born. Either on the seventh
or on the fifteenth day of the mouth, dinners are given in each
district to the poor by such of their neighbours as have had
male children born to them, or have just come to reside in the
district for the first time. Such banquets consist of rice, fish
pork, fowls, vegetables, and wine, and are held in the hall of the
principal temple of the district. A short time before the liour fixed
for the feast, messengers are sent througli the streets to summon
the guests, either by beating gongs, or by going quickly from
from door to door. This method of invitation seems to be of
venerable antiquity, for we read in St. Luke, " that a certain
man made a great supper, and bade many : and sent his servant

256 CHINA. [oHAf.

at supper time to say to them that were bidden, Come, for all
things are now ready.'"' Morier, in his account of his second journey
into Persia, describes a similar custom. Speaking of a feast to
be given by the second vizier, he says, that "on the day
appointed, as is usual in Persia, a messenger came about five
o'clock in the evening to bid us to the feast."

Throughout the first month, large processions, representing
scenes of ancient history, traverse the streets by night. The
processionists, who are in dramatic costumes, are preseded by
the representation of a large dragon, which, like the monsters of
a pantomime, is carried by men, the upper part of whose bodies
are concealed in it. Boys follow, bearing lanterns of various
shapes on long poles. Statute hirings are another feature of
the season. These are held during the first half of the month,
in the large squares in front of the principal temples of cities
and towns. I have already alluded to these fairs, but I may
here describe a peculiar mode of gambling practised at them,
which I omitted to notice. A large fish, all alive — in some
instances a large piece of pork — is placed on the top of a pole,
and hungry-looking fellows may be seen staking a week's
earnings on the guess they have made as to its weight. When
each speculator has declared his opinion, and handed in his
stake, the fish, or pork, is taken down and weighed, and the
winner declared.

One other custom by which the first month of the year is
signalized in the southern provinces remains to be noted.
The peasants of neighbouring villages meet in the open plains,
form sides, and attack each other with stones. These en-
counters are sometimes very serious affairs. In one which I
saw on the island of Honam, so many peasants were injured
that the elders requested the police to prevent its renewal
next day. Next morning the police accordinglj^ seized one of
the ringleaders, and bound him to a tree. Tlie peasants, how-
ever, drove them back, loosed the prisoner, and renewed the
rough scenes of the day before. At Yim-poo, in 1865, I saw
aljout seven hundred men, whose ages varied from eighteen to
forty, engaged in a contest of this sort. The high ground
overlooking the plain where they fought was crowded with

XI.] THE FESTIVAL OF TOO-TEE. 257

spectators. Apparently thinking that I was a medical mis-
sionary, some of the combatants brought their wounded
comrades and laid them down before me. In the intervals of
their foolish sport, the men refreshed themselves at the soup
and fruit stalls on the ground. Like most Chinese customs,
these conflicts have their origin in a superstitious belief. They
are occasionally attended with loss of life, and the elders of
villages frequently do their best to prevent them.

The second day of the second month is the festival of
Too-Tee, the god of wealth. Many of the tradespeople do not
re-open their places of business, which closed at the beginning
of the year, till after this gala day, for the god of wealth is a
very important personage in the empire. All classes, rich
and poor, learned and unlearned, religious and irreligious, seem
to regard wealth as the chief of blessings, and the homage
paid to Too-Tee is very sincere and earnest. His shrines are
to be seen at the entrance of almost all the principal streets
of Southern Chinese cities. He is represented sitting in state
with an ingot of gold in his hand, and on his anniversary his
shrines are decorated with lanterns painted in gay colours with
various devices. Sweet-smelling li'owers are also profusely scat-
tered over them, and the votaries present offerings of pork, and
boiled fowls, and pour libations. In all the cities and large
towns, a curious custom is observed in front of the principal
shrines. It consists in firing from a dais erected in the square
which forms the shrine, and which is crowded with men of all
ages, a wooded cannon loaded wiCh a small charge of gun-
powder, and a ball made of rattan. The ball rises some forty
or fifty feet into the air, and innumerable hands are stretched
out to receive it, for the lucky man who catches it when it
falls is specially favoured by the god of wealth for the rest of
the year. He is presented in the name of Too-Tee with an
ornament for his ancestral altar. The decorations, consisting
of artificial flowers, among which are set representations of the
gods of wealth, rank, and longevity, is placed under a gilded
canopy, and borne on the shoulders of men wearing red tunics
to the house of the fortunate votary. Two or three minstrels
head the procession, playing upon shrill musical instruments

VOL. I. s

258 CHINA. [chap.

Upwards of thirty balls are sometimes fired from the cannon,
but the luckiest man is he who secures the first ball. A large
city like Canton presents a very brilliant appearance at this
festival, and processions, headed by minstrels, traverse the
streets in all directions. All classes are anxious to secure these
tokens of Too-Tee's favour. I remember the principal mandarin
of tlie large silk town of Kow-kong pointing out to me with
pride an ornament of this kind which his son had won.

On the third day of the third month the literati and school-
boys observe the Chaong-tsze, an ancient festival which is
alluded to in the writings of Confucius. Those who keep the
Chaong-tsze, seek rivers, streams, and fountains, in which to
bathe. This is looked upon as a rite of purification, and is
supposed to render the votary proof against all evil influences.
The festival is more particularly observed in Shantung, the
native province of Confucius.

On the fifth day of the fifth month — that is, on or about the
18th of June — the Dragon Boat Festival is observed throughout
the length and breadth of the land. This popular holiday is
held in memory of Wat- Yuen, a minister of state who flourished
about 500 B.C. A man of great honesty and virtue, he served a
profligate prince of Cho — a kingdom which included the region
now divided into the provinces of Hooj)eh and Hoonam, which
until recently formed the single province of Hoo-kwang.
Obnoxious to the prince for unremitting endeavours to secure
his attention to affairs of state, Wat- Yuen was degraded and
eventually dismissed. Unable to endure the disgrace, he
committed suicide, but before doing so he composed an ode, in
wdiich he depicted his sorrows with much pathos. He then
flung himself into the river Mek-lo. Some fishermen who
witnessed the act hastily rowed towards the spot where he
disappeared, but they M^ere unable to recover the body. With
the view of appeasing the manes of the departed, they cast
into the river offerings of boiled rice. On the corresponding
day of the following year — the fifth day of the fifth month — ■
the ceremony of searching for the body of Wat-Yuen,^ and

■• Near the spr.t wliere he is said to have perished, a large temple has been
erected in honour of Wat-Yuen.

XI.] THE DRAGON BOAT FESTIVAL. 259

presenting offerings to his manes, was repeated ; and from tliat
time to the present it has been continued, and is observed
besides on nearly all the rivers and creeks of the em[>ire. The
offerings of rice were formerly inclosed in small pieces of silk,
wliich were then tightly bound together by five threads or cords,
each of which was of a different colour. This custon; is said to
have owed its origin to the following myth : — On one occasion
whilst a number of votaries were engaged on the banks of the
]\rek-lo river in worshipping and presenting ' the customary
oflerings to the spirit of Wat- Yuen, he suddenly appeared and
addressed them in the following words : —

" I have hitherto been unable to avail myself of the offerings
which you and others have so graciously presented to me, in
consequence of a huge reptile which immediately seizes and
devours all things that are cast into the waters. 1 request you
therefore to inclose all offerings intended for me in small
pieces of silk, and to carefully bind the same by means of five
threads, each being of a different colour. Offerings which are
in this manner inclosed the reptile will not dare to touch."

Leaves of the bamboo tree, or those which by the Cliinese are
termed Tuung-ip, are now" substituted for the pieces of silk.
The boats which are used at this great annual festival, resemble
in form, as their name implies, large dragons. Boats so con-
structed are supposed to have the power of intimidating the
huge reptile of which Wat-Yuen complained. They are from
fifty to one hundred feet in length, and are decorated with flags
bearing various devices. In the centre of each boat is placed a
drum, to the sound of which the rowers, who are sometimes as
many as ninety, keep accurate time with their paddles. Gongs
are also placed in each boat, and the noise is supposed to dispel
the hungry ghosts who may be disposed to prey upon the spirit
of the departed. In the bow, which is ornamented with a green
sprig called Low-yow-yeep, a man stands as if on the outlook
for the body of Wat- Yuen, throwing his arms about as if
casting rice upon the waters. A leading feature of the festival
is the races which take place between the different crews.
Sometimes, especially when the contest is between two crews
of different clans, the race ends in a fight, the immediate

s 2

260 CHINA. [chap.

cause of ■winch is prol3ably the boats fouling. They often
provide beforehand for such an occurrence, many of them
being followed at a short distance by boats carrying stones
and other weapons. At Canton, where the festival is very
popular, the river is crowded with boats of almost all kinds
of naval architecture ; and the din arising from drums, gongs,
fire-crackers, and the shouts of contending crews, is incessant
and deafening from ten o'clock in the morning until four in
the afternoon. Fatal accidents are not uncommon, as, owing to
their shallowness and their peculiar construction, the dragon
boats are easily swamped, or capsized. For some weeks before
the festival, great preparations are made for it by the various
clans, and the launching of a new boat is a most exciting event
to the clan to which it belongs. The Dragon Boat Festival is
celebrated by dinners at all the guilds, and the soldiers and
police show their appreciation of the national holiday by
"squeezing" gambling houses. At Pekin where there is no
river, the people have recourse on this day to horse and cart,
and camel races. Even members of the blood-royal resort to the
city of Tang-Chow, which stands on the banks of the Peiho
river, in order to witness the processions of dragon boats. In
Mongolia, the people generally celebrate this great national
festival by theatrical representations.

The Tien-Chung-Ching-Sit, or Feast of the Middle Heaven,
falls on the same day as the Dragon Boat Festival, and in obser-
vance of it cakes possessing medicinal properties are baked by the
Chinese at noon, and sent to friends as presents. Chemists
make such cakes in large numbers, and export them to Australia
and California, where they meet with a ready sale among the
Chinese population. This festival, which is of great antiquity,
is also marked by suspending leaves of the sago palm, a 1 u-anch
of the cactus tree, and a bulb of garlic above the outer doors of
dwelling-houses, as a preventive against evil influences. Children
of tender years have their foreheads and navels marked with
vermilion for the same reason ; and as a check to insects and
vermin, small strips of yellow-paper, with characters written on
them with a vermilion pencil, are posted on the doorposts and
bedsteads. The inmates of prisons are apparently very careful

XI.] THE CHINESE FESTIVAL OF ALL SOULS. 2(31

to observe this custom. On a visit which I paid to the Namlioi
prison at Canton, on the day of the festival, I found thcni
posting such strips above tlie doors of the cells, as the clock
struck twelve.

From the first to the fifteenth day of the seventh month the
Cliinese burn vestments made of paper, and gold and silver
paper representing money, as offerings to the souls of paupers
and beggars who have died unbefriended during the past twelve
niontlis. At first sight this M'ould seem to be a great proof of
benevolence. Those who have carefully studied their character,
however, incline to regard it as a prudent observance of the first
law of nature — self-preservation ; for, if not appeased in tlds
way, the spirits to whom the offerings are made are supposed to
go to and fro disseminating every kind of evil through the land.
Fi'om eight to ten o'clock during the festival, lanterns are
suspended eitlier above the doors of houses, or from the boughs
of adjoining trees, and tapers are placed by hundreds along the
streets and highways. The towns and villages are lighted up
by large quantities of burning paper clothes, paper money, and
paper representations of sedan chairs and attendants. A river
in the neighbourhood of a large city presents the most animated
appearance. Large flower boats, brilliant with rows of lanterns,
glide along the stream, which reflects their numerous lights.
They carry Taouist priests chanting a requiem for the souls of
those who have perished by drowning, supposed to be flitting
disconsolately over the surface of the waters. Men stationed in
the bow, burn paper clothes and paper money, others throw rice
and vegetables into the stream for the spirits. At intervals
floating lights are borne quickly past by the rapid current.
These are lamps placed in earthenware vessels, and launched on
the river or creek to light up the darkness for the w^andering
souls of the drowned.

This festival, which is called Shu-Yee in the Cantonese dialect,
and which Ave might not inappropriately call the Chinese
Festival of All Souls, is also observed in the principal temples,
monasteries, and nunneries. Masses are said there continuously
for several days by Taouist and Buddhist priests for the spirits
of those who had nobody to care for them when they died.

2G2 CHINA, ■ [chap.

Biiddliist priests do not coutine their intercessions at this time
to their own gods. Tliey pray for the departed also to the Taoiiist
deities, and their liberality is reciprocated. When I visited the
temple of Tsing-poo near Canton, in 1861, at the celebration of
this festival, I found the priests of Taou invoking Buddhistical
deities as well as the gods of their own sect to bless the souls of
the departed poor.

At Canton this festival was observed in 1856 on a grand
scale. The vicinity of the execution ground was appropriately
chosen as tlie special scene of its rites ; for here Yeh, the then
governor-general, had during the past two years slain his
hecatombs, and the headless spirits of his victims were reported
to be seen at night in thousands threatening the citizens. The
father of Yeh, who was a very superstitious man, was amongst
the foremost contributors to the fund provided for the celebra-
tion of the festival.

In the course of the fifteen days devoted to the observance of
the Shu-Yee, a festival called T'sliat-T'sic takes place. This is
held on the seventh day of the seventh month, and is in honour
of the Seven Stars, which are regarded by the Chinese as
goddesses. They are the patronesses of embroidered work,
and are worshipped chiefly by women — especially unmarried
women — who embroider silk garments and shoes for offerings
on this anniversary. These gifts are tastefiilly laid out on tables
in the halls of houses, which, as the festival is celebrated by
night, are brilliantly illuminated. Other tables are spread with
flowers, sweatmeats, and preserved fruits, and amongst these are
placed basins containing tender shoots of the rice plant. They
are so arranged as to appear as if they were growing, and in the
centre of each cluster a minute lamp is placed, whose spark of
light reminds one of a glow-worm or a fire-fly. Miniature bridges
formed of garlands and flowers, and also of grains of boiled rice
and almonds cemented by gum, connect these tables. While the
ladies in their holiday dresses wander uncertainly from table to
table — for their feet are very small — to admire the curious art
of delicate fingers, the gentlemen are listening in another apart-
ment to singing men and women ; elsewhere Taouist priests are
chanting pagans in honour of the seven goddesses. At midnight

XI.] THE FESTIVAL OF THE SEVEN STARS. 263

the young ladies with their female attendants go out to draw-
water, every Chinese house being provided with one or more
w^ells. The water is poured into large earthenware vases,
arranged in order round the mouth of the well. After the seven
goddesses have been invoked to give the water medicinal
properties, the jars are hermetically sealed and put in a place of
safety, to be opened only when a member of the family retjuires
a draught of the disease-dispelling beverage. The outer door of
the dwelling house is kept open during the night, and the streets
in which the gentry reside are crowded wdth people anxious to
witness the display. The festival is brought to a close at twelve
o'clock on the following night, the richly-embroidered garments
being burned, in order that they may be conveyed to the
goddesses. The Chinese tell the following legend of the origin
of the festival. The youngest of the seven sisters was sent by
the gods to this world as a special messenger. While here she
became enamoured of a cowdierd, to whom she was eventually
married. In course of time she was summoned to return to her
home in the firmament. In obedience to the gods she hastened
back, and had no sooner joined her fair sisters than a shower
of rain fell. It was the tears of the disconsolate goddess.
Before long the cowherd died of a broken heart. And as his
life had been one deserving the approbation of the gods, he was
admitted as a reward into the constellation situated on the side
of the milky way opposite to that on which the seven stars
shine. Once every year, that is, on the seventh day of the seventh
mouth, the cowherd is supposed to bridge the milky way and
pass over on a visit to his fair spouse. This is the origin of the
mimic bridges which span the tables on which the offerings for
the seven goddesses are arranged.

The fifteenth day of the eighth month is specially set apart
for the worship of the moon.^ This festival is known by foreigners

^ On the first and fifteenth day of each month the Cliinese also observe festivals
bearing some resemblance to the Mominia, or feasts observed in hononr of the
new moon by the Hebrews, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Courts
of justice and j'amuns are closed. The moon is not, however, the object of the
worship on these days so much as various other deities, especially the gods of
wealth. At one time it was customary to sacrifice a bullock to the moon on the
first and fifteenth days of each month. Afterwards a goat was substituted. On

2G4 CHINA. . [chap.

as the Feast of Lanterns, and takes place at night, when families
worship the moon on the roofs of their houses and in their
ancestral halls. On the altars erected there are arranged offer-
ings of fowls, pork, and cakes. While these are being offered
the worshippers perform the kow-tow, and gongs, tom-toms, and
drums are beaten. On the tops of the houses, long poles bearing
lanterns and banners of various devices and mottoes are erected.
The lanterns are sometimes kept burning during the greater
part of the night. The ships and boats riding at anchor in the
rivers are gaily decorated and illuminated, the festival being
very popular with the nautical population. Canton, seen from
an eminence during the Feast of Lanterns, presents a very
striking appearance, the illumination extending over the whole
city and neighbourhood. As at all festivals in China, there is
much eating and drinking. For several days before, the con-
fectioners' shops are stocked with moon-cakes,^ for which there
is a great demand. They are circular in form, so as to represent
the orb of night, and are ornamented with all sorts of devices.
Another custom is the erection in the squares in front of the
large temples and guilds of pagodas from seven to ten feet high,
and filled with firewood. When the hour of worship has come,
the fuel is set on fire and the blaze is kept up by fresh supplies
for upwards of three hours. The flames burst forth through
small apertures on each side, and at the top, which is not
covered in. From a small platform near it seven or eight men
by turns throw saltpetre into the flames. Gold and silver papers,
representing ingots, are also thrown in as offerings to the goddess
of the moon. As fresh fuel is added, the men in charge run
round the burning pagoda fanning the flames through the

the day before the festival the hullock or goat was conducted in procession
throngli the principal streets of the city to inform the people of the near approach
of the new or full moon.

^ Among the poorer classes, especially in villages, what are called moon-cake
societies are formed. The head or treasurer of the society is either a baker or a
confectioner, and each member contributes a monthly sum of one hundred cash
or ten cents. When the festival comes round, the treasurer, who has had full
liberty to employ the subscriptions in trade, provides each subscriber with a full
supply of moon-cakes. In the cities cakes are given at this season by the con-
fectioners as presents to the abject poor.

XI.] ORIGIN OF THE FEAST OF LANTERNS. 265

apertures, shouting' loudly, and, in tlie lurid glare, presenting a
sufficiently wild and barbarous appearance.

Electro-biology is practised to a great extent at this festival.
A person willing to be operated upon is placed in the rays of
the moon, lie has to stand leaning his forehead on the top of
a pole which he grasps with his hands, and which is placed
slantwise, the other hand resting on the ground. Burning
incense sticks are then waved over his head and about his
body, the operators — there are generally two or three of them
— repeating prayers in a low tone to the goddess of the moon.
In the course of half an hour the mesmerized person falls down.
He is then raised, and placed upon his feet, and made to go
through a variety of movements at the will of the operator. In
1862, I saw a youth at Canton perform the sword and lance
exercises under this mesmeric influence. He went through the
evolutions, which, it was stated, he had never been taught, with
a grace and dexterity that would have done credit to a well-
trained lancer. He was kept in a state of great bodily exertion
for upwards of three hours. In the Toong-koon district of
Kwang-tung mesmerism is much practised at this festival.

What the goddess of the moon is to the Chinese, Ashtoreth
seems to have been, in ancient times, to the Sidonians. As the
moon is regarded by the former as the correlative female divinity
to the sun, Ashtoreth was looked upon by the latter as the corre-
lative female divinity to Baal, the Sun god. It is not unreason-
able to suppose that a reference is made to Ashtoreth under the
title of " queen of heaven," in the prophecy of Jeremiah (vii. 18,
xliv. 17) ; and from these passages we learn that to the " queen of
heaven" incense was burned, cakes were offered, and libations
were poured out — rites which are at the present day observed by
the Chinese in their worship of the moon. The Chinese have,
however, a legend of their own to account for their worship of
the moon. On the fifteenth day of the eighth month of the first
year of his reign, the emperor Ming Wong was walking in the
grounds of his palace attended by one of his priests. The
emperor, who was much given to astrological studies, asked his
companion if he could inform him of what material the moon
was made. The priest, by way of reply, asked his royal master

200 CIIIXA. [criAP.

if he would like to visit the moon. The emperor said he
would, and thereupon the priest threw his staff into the air.
The staff became a bridge, and Ming Wong and his companion
passed over it. They found the moon to be a region of vast
palaces, beautiful flowers, and fair women. On their way back
the priest requested his majesty, who had his lute with him —
an instrument which he was noted for playing with remarkable
skill — to enliven their way with its melodious strains. The
music filled the air, and the inhabitants of Nankin and the
surrounding territory, believing that rejoicing angels were tra-
versing the reahns of space, ran to the tops of their houses to
do them homage. At the recpiest of the priest, his majesty
showered down cash upon the votaries. "When Ming AVong
was once more in his palace, his adventure seemed so strange
that he concluded it was a dream ; but whilst he was persuading
himself that it was so an official communication was laid before
him. It came from the governor-general of the province,
describing certain marvels which had taken place on the loth
day of the mouth — celestial music had been heard in the air,
and cash had fallen from heaven. So the emperor was con-
vinced that he had visited the moon, and the people have since
continued to worship her on the night on which Ming Wong
accomplished his marvellous journey.

On the twenty-fifth day of the eighth month the sun is wor-
shipped. AVhen the great male star, Tai-Yaong, as he is often
called by the Chinese, has reached his meridian splendour, the
members of each lamily arrange themselves for worship before
a temporary altar in the courtyard of their dwelling-house, or
in an apartment whence the sun can be seen. Tapers and
incense are kept burning on the altar, and thankofferings are
presented. Frequently, especially in the houses of the wealthy,
Taouist priests assist at the ceremony. Copies of an address
from the sun to the people are gratuitously circulated at this
festival, at the expense of persons who have made a vow to do
so on recovering from sickness. The address is as follows : —

" I, the great male luminary, when I come forth, the whole
canopy of heaven is tinged with my brightness. jMorning and
night I weary not, but at all hours steadily pursue my course.

XI.] AN ADDRESS FRO:\I THE SUN— AX ECLIPSE. 2G7

My speed is according to my own pleasure. No one can urge
me forward, no one can stay my progress. The dwellings of all
men I visit with my light. You, however, the people, do not
address me with reverence and respect. Were I, in displeasure,
to cease my shining, you would all die of starvation, inasnuich
as tlie earth would no longer bring forth fruits. The salutary
vicissitudes of day and night would cease.

"To the gods in general all men pay great devotion, but to
me, the great male star, homage is seldom or never rendered.
The twenty-fifth day of the eighth month is my natal anniver-
sary, and on this occasion it is your duty to read this address
and to burn tapers and incense to my glory. Families by which
these, my commands, are obeyed will be kept free from evil.
Hell and destruction, however, are before all those who neglect
them. My title is the great light vrliich rules the world. To
all good and virtuous men and women I now speak. Read
seven times daily this my address : you will not descend
to hell, and all the members of your families will at all times
rejoice and be hajipy. Your posterity also for seven generations
will ascend to heaven. Address me by the name of the Great
Light which rules the world, and I will stretch forth my golden
hands to give you light, and to guide you to the Paradise of the
Western Heaven."

On the occasion of an eclipse of the sun his worship is also
celebrated. Five months prior to the eclipse the head of the
Li-poo board at Pekin, in obedience to the commands of tlie
emperor, forwards a despatch to the chief rulers of each pro-
vince, and through him to the chief magistrate of each pre-
fecture and each county, requesting them at the approaching
eclipse to save the sun. At the time all the mandarins, attired
in black robes, assemble at the official residence of the chief
magistrate. "When they have arranged themselves before an
altar erected in the courtyard of tlie yamun, the chief magistrate
burns incense on the altar and beats a drum three times. At
this stage all the officials present fall down before the altar and
perform the kow-tow. The ceremony on the part of the officials
having been brought to a close, a number of underlings continue,
until the eclipse is over, to beat drums and tom-toms with the

208 CHINA. ■ [chap.

view of frightening and thereby preventing the Tien-Kow or
heavenly dogs from devouring the sun. During this din, priests
of the respective sects of Buddha and Taou stand before the
altar and chant appropriate prayers. Upon the tops of all the
dwelling-houses and sliops of a Chinese city, men are also
stationed who, by means of drums, tom-toms, and horns, add
to the general din. The same ceremonies take place during an
eclipse of the moon. Formerly in other lands, as in China
to-day, an eclipse of the sun or moon was beheld with terror.
To rescue the moon from the spell of the enchanter, otlier
nations, like the Chinese of the present day, had recourse to
the blowing of horns and the beating of drums and brazen pots
and pans. This ridiculous custom was evidently in full force in
the days of Juvenal, who alludes to it in a description of a
brawling woman —

' ' Forbear your drums and trumpets if you please,
Her voice aloue, the labouring moon can ease."

To relieve nature in the full light of either the sun or moon
is by the Chinese regarded as an act of great impiety. In both
Taouistical and Buddhistical classics such an act of profanity is
regarded as more than enough in itself to bring calamities upon
the nation. Placards are occasionally by billstickers posted at
the corners of the streets, warning the people against such an
unseemly and irreligious practice. Throughout the empire of
China there is, I believe, only one temple in honour of the sun.
It stands within the walls of the city of Pekin, and is of a
circular shape, and domed. At the festival of the Sun the
emperor worships here.

Besides these festivals of the sun and moon religious cere-
monies and rejoicings take place throughout the whole month in
honor o^" Wa-Kwong, the god of fire. In the south of China at
all events, the principal streets of the cities are illuminated not
by lanterns, but by crystal chandeliers suspended at frequent
intervals from beams extended across the streets. The lights
are protected from rain by sheets of canvas stretched across the
streets, which are very narrow in southern cities. During this
month groups of figures in wax-work, attired in silk dresses, are

XI.] THE GOD OF FIRE— FESTIVALS OF CIIING-YAONG. 2G9

carried in procession. They represent certain episodes in the
ancient history of the empire. The figures are very well
executed, and would do no discredit to ]\ladame Tussaud's
well-known exhiljition. In the principal streets are erected
temporary altars in honour of Wa-Kwong, and Taouist priests
are engaged all night long in chanting prayers. Tlie idols of
this deity are occasionally borne in procession tlirough the
streets. In 1861, I witnessed a large procession at the pre-
fectoral city of Tak-hing on the banks of the western brand i of
the Canton river. Numbers of boys riding on horseback, and
ladies borne in triumphal chairs, attended the idol, attired in tlie
costumes of the period in which Wa-Kwong flourished. As no
foreigners liad previously visited the city, the presence of my
friends and myself was a source of much curiosity to the vast
crowd assembled on the occasion. The young ladies regarded
us with surprise and alarm as they were borne past the corner
of the street near which we were standing ; and, much to our
annoyance, the majority of the spectators deserted the pro-
cession to follow us in our explorations of their ancient, but
uninteresting city.

On the nintli day of the ninth month, the festival termed
Ching-Yaong or Tan-Koon is celebrated. Tlie people resort to
the hills of their neighbourhood to commemorate tlie interven-
tion of angels to save a pious scholar and successful teacher who
lived about nine hundred years ago in the time of the T'sun
dynasty. This personage, called Too Wong-hing, was instructed
to go with his wife and family to the top of a mountain in order
to escape an impending calamity. The Ching-Yaong is held in
honour of his miraculous deliverance. The people picnic on the
hills, and fiy kites, which they set adrift, cutting the cords Avlien
the kites are high in the air. A kite thus set adrift is supposed
to carry with it in its doAvnward course all the evils impending
at the time on the family of the person to whom it belongs.
This superstitious observance brings to a close what the Chinese
regard as the season for kite-flying. This pastime, it may be
remarked, is much indulged in by men and boys. I remember
being considerably surprised when, calling upon a Chinese
gentleman, shortly after my arrival in China, I was informed

270 CHINA. . [chap.

by tlie servant that he v.-as on the top of the house flying his
kite. Chinese kites, which are without tails, are of all shapes,
and resemble birds, insects, baskets of flowers, serpents, centi-
pedes, ships, and even men. Those resembling serpents or
centipedes are sometimes of enormous length. The most beau-
tiful kite I ever saw was at Tam-sui, in Formosa, and was in
the form of a Catherine wheel. The largest kites are made at
Tientsin, and some of them require four or live men to hold
them. In the centre of Chinese kites, four or five metallic
strings are fixed on the principle of the xEolian harp. AVhen
they are flying, " slow-lisping notes as of the ^olian lyre " are dis-
tinctly heard. The legend which describes how these strings
came to be used in this way is very characteristic of the people.
During the reign of the emperor Low-pong, the founder of
the Hon dynasty, a general who was much attached to the
dynasty which had been obliged to give way before the more
powerful house of Hon, resolved to make a last vigorous effort
to drive Low-pong from the throne he had recently usurped.
A battle, however, resulted in the army of the general being
hemmed in and threatened with annihilation. At his wits' end
to devise a method of escape, he at last conceived the ingenious
idea of frightening the enemy by flying kites, fitted with ^Eolian
strings, over their camp in the dead of night. The wind was
favourable, and when all was wrapt in darkness and silence, the
forces of Low-pong heard sounds in the air resembling Foo-Hon !
Foo-Hon ! — Beware of Hon ! Beware of Hon ! It was their
guardian angels, they declared, who were warning them of
impending danger, and they precipitately fled, hotly pursued by
the general and his army.

Besides the public festivals observed by the Chinese, the
chief of which I have described, there are what may be termed
fandly festivals. The most important is the celebration of a
birthday, which is invariably attended with much rejoicing.
Sons and daughters usually mark the birthday of a parent by a
great entertainment. Before the banquet is served, the parents,
seated on a dais under a crimson canopy of embroidered work,
receive their children's homage and congratulations amid the
blowing of pipes and trumpets, and the clanging of cymbals.

XI.] BIRTHDAY FESTIVALS OF PAKFXTS. 271

The ko>A-tow is performed first by the sons in the order of
seniority, and nfterwards by the daughters in the same order,
llelatives and friends are often present in large nnmbers — some-
times coming from a great distance. In Kwang-tung, the name
of one Shou ►Sing-koon, who in the last century attained a
iiatriarchal age, is used as a term of conoratulation at such a
time. "When travelling in this province in 18G2, I saw near
the city of Loong-moon, on the banks of the river of that name,
a long procession of ladies going to the birthday celebration of
tlie head of their clan. They were preceded by a number of
attendants bearing the gifts usually presented on such occasions.
AVhen a father completes his fifty-first year, he usually receives
from his children, besides other gifts, a large screen of several
leaves richly carved in wood and inlaid, in wealthy families,
with i^'ory, silver, and mother-of-pearl. On the panels are
various devices, some emblematical of longevity, others of virtue.
The screen is placed behind the chairs of the parents when
they sit in state to receive their birthday congratulations. Gifts
of this kinds are, of course, very costly. 1 remember seeing
one which was valued at the sum of £400. Large pieces of
tapestry are frequently presented to parents on the completion of
their fifty-first year. When they reach the age of sixty-one they
sometimes, incredible as it may seem, receive coffins as gifts
from their children. The coffins are either deposited in temples
or kept in the house, and are much valued. At the banquet
which follows the offering of congratulations and gifts, the
person whose birthday it is, is careful not to partake of the
fiesli of the animal which represents the division of the twenty-
four hours in which he was born. These divisions are two hours
each. Thus from midnight until 2 A.M. is represented by a
n'gow, or cow ; from 2 to 4 am. hj a loo-foo, or tiger ; from 4 to
fi A.M. by a rabbit ; from 6 to 8 A.M. by a loong, or dragon ; from
8 to 10 A.M. by a shay ; from 10 to 12 noon, by a ma, or horse ;
from 12 to 2 p. jr. by a yaoug, or sheep; from 2 to 4 p.m. by a
matou, or monkey ; from 4 to 6 P.M, by a ki, or fowl ; from 6
to 8 P.M. by a kow, or dog ; from 8 to 10 p.m. by a chu, or pig;
from 10 until midnight, by a lo-shu, or rat. To eat at his
birthday banquet the flesh of the animal wluch the hour of his

272 CHINA. , [chap.

birtli proscribes, entails bad dreams upon a Chinese. It is liis
duty to purcliase such an animal and let it go free. When he
cannot do this, he burns a paper figure of it. Wealthy families
also hold theatrical performances in honour of a birthday. The
houses of the wealthy are generally provided with theatres, and
on the anniversary of a decade of years, performances are some-
times given for a fortnight. The completion of the fifty-first
year, and of every following decade, is celebrated with great
magnificence.^ I was present at a celebration of this kind held
on the fifty-first birthday of the wife of Howqua, one of the
wealthiest citizens of Canton, In addition to the theatrical
entertainments, which lasted for a fortnight, and the garden
fetes, there were religious ceremonies at the temple of Longevity,
which was tastefully decorated. For three whole days no fewer
than thirty Buddhist priests were engaged in returning thanks to
God for His preserving care over the lady who had completed
her fifty-first year. When a person completes his eighty-first
year the elders of his village or district usually inform the
local government, which communicates it through the proper
channels to the emperor, who orders a sum of money from the
Imperial treasmy for the erection of a monumental arch in his
honour. The arch is erected either in front of the house of the
patriarch or in the country. These arches are very numerous
throughout the empire. They are made of granite, or, in some
districts, of marble. They consist of a triple gateway, like
the triumphal arches of ancient Eome. The slab immediately
above the central gateway is usually elaborately carved, and
inscribed with four Chinese characters selected by the emperor,
and expressive of the virtues of the patriarch. Above the centre
slab, and at right angles to it, is a small one inscribed with the
two characters Sing and Chee, implying that the monument^
was erected by imperial order. The most beautiful arches of the

^ So great is the reverence paid to old men in China that all above seventy-
are permitted to wear an official dress, and to affix a copper button to the apex
of their caps ; and district magistrates us\ially send their visiting cards four
times in the year to all those in theii- districts who are upwards of ninety years
of age.

■^ There are several such arches in front of dwelling-houses in Canton. They
are kejit in a good state of preservation. Seveial oi them are made of brick.

XI.] MONUMENTAL ARCHES. 273

kiud which I have seen, are on the banks of the western branch
of the Canton river. Two are partieuhirly imposing, one which
was erected by Hien-fung in honour of a centenarian, and
another erected near Tak-hing, by Ying-chung in honour of liis
secretary. I may mention a third, recently built at Yim-poo
in honour of a woman wdio lived to be a hundred years old.

Tlie natal anniversary of the emperor is celebrated with
much rejoicing by the civil and military officers in all the
provinces. At a very early hour they repair to an imperial
temple — with one of which every city is provided — to per-
form the kow-tow before the emperor's tablet. The three
days immediately preceding, and the three following his
majesty's birthday are devoted to holiday-making. It is usual
for the emperor to mark the day by a proclamation of clemency
to criminals, addressed to the chief rulers of provinces. Those
condemned to death sometimes have their sentences commuted
to transportation for life. Others have their term of impri-
sonment limited ; and some are released from captivity.
Prisoners also get extra rations on the birthday of the em-
peror. I remember seeing the walls of all the government
offices in Canton posted with copies of a proclamation of this
kind, issued wdien the late emperor Hien-fung completed his
thirty-sixth year.

The birthdays of the Chinese are also celebrated after their
death. Offerings of fruits and viands are placed on a table in
front of the ancestral altar, on which is the tablet of the
deceased. His portrait also hangs in the ancestral hall to
receive the homage of his children and grandchildren, I was
once present at the natal anniversary of a lady who had been
dead for several years. It took place in a large ancestral hall
attached to the family residence. In an ante-chamber I found
no fewer than forty ladies, in their best robes, waiting to pay their
homage to the spirit of the deceased lady, who, had she lived,
w^ould have then completed her ninety-first year. A master of
ceremonies was present, and the ladies performed the kow-tow
in the order of seniority. The religious ceremony was followed by
a banquet, and all the servants and slaves of the family received
small presents of money, inclosed in little envelopes of red paper.

VOL. I. T

274 CHINA. [chap.

The making of a will is another occasion of feasting and rejoic-
ing in families. In China, as elsewhere in Asia, it is customary
for parents, when they are advanced in years, to divide their
property amongst their children. On a lucky day, selected by
a geomancer, the parents meet their children in the principal
hall of the house, or in the ancestral hall. All are attired
for the occasion in their richest robes. The parents occupy
the chief seats, and the sons stand, arranged according to
seniority, on the side of the father, while the daughters are
ranged on the side of the mother. Having informed his
children of the amount of his property, the father proceeds
to divide it equally amongst his sons, so that each may at
once have his portion. The daughters although present, are
not, as a general rule, allowed to inherit any of their father's
property. In many instances, the elder son receives a larger
portion than the younger. The father reserves a sum of
money, the interest of which he considers will be sufficient to
defray the future household expenses of liimself and wife. At
the death of the parents, the sum thus reserved does not
revert to the children, but is set apart for the endowment of
the ancestral hall. Such endowments serve to defray the cost
of the offerings presented on the ancestral altars, and at the
family tombs. They are occasionally used in the event of a son
proving a spendthrift, the brothers sometimes saving the pro-
digal from starvation by an allowance out of these funds.

When a father does not divide his property among his sons
during his life-time, it is usual for him to assemble his children,
nephews, nieces, and other relatives in the ancestral hall, and to
inform his sons of the amount he intends to bequeath to each.
He then proceeds to draw up a will, which is given to the
firstborn, copies being given to each of the other sons. If nephews
be included, they also receive copies. Obeisance is then made
to the father by all present, in the order of seniority. Where the
testator has houses or landed property, he sometimes divides it
into as many equal portions as he has sons, and then calls upon
them to cast lots for the portions, according to seniority. Those
present at such ceremonies are invited to a banquet in honour
of the occasion. Except in cases of dangerous illness, a Chinese

XI.] THE MAKING OF A WILL. 275

father does not make his will until his wife has ceased to bear
children.

As a Chinese will may prove interesting to my readers, I
venture to give a translation of one taken from the columns of
the Friend of China, under date June 22nd, 1861. The editor
introduces it with some prefatory remarks : —

" Three respectable Chinese," he writes, " came to us the
other day, to ask whether it would be possible to induce the
allied commissioners of England and France (for the city of
Canton was at that time under foreign rule) to adjudicate in a
dispute between them and their elder brother, relative to the
division of certain lands and houses devised by their father, one
of the Hong merchants of Taou-Kwang's palmy days ; and they
appeared greatly disappointed when we told them that, being a
purely Chinese matter, it was not in the power of the foreign
officers to take up the case. According to their account, the
doors of the native courts of justice were closed against them,
the usurper of their rights being able to fee the understrappers,
to keep their petition from reaching the higher officers to whom
it is addressed. The wiU which they brought us to exhibit
their rights is an interesting document, and as but little is
known regarding the tenure of property in China, we will briefly
notice the heads of it. It beghis thus : —

" These are the dying behests of Cha-Kar-Ng to his seven sons,
the first called Yow-lMun (deceased) ; the second, Yow^-Shing, the
third, Yow-Yan; the fourth, Yow-Siin ; the fifth, Yow-Tak ; the
sixth, Yow-Him ; the seventh, Yow-Yeung ; and his two brothers
named Kar-Ting and Chee-On. The 16th day of 12th month of
the 5th year of the reign of tlie emperor Taou-Kwang.

" I, Cha-Kar-Ng, your father, give you these following de-
parting instructions, which must constantly be observed as
rules or guides.

" In my youth I forsook the study of the classics, and for
sixteen years have addicted myself to traffic. But tliough
attending to trade with all my heart, I have still cultivated the
virtues, and have not been inattentive to the performance of
social duties. Suddenly I find myself troubled with dysentery,
and as this is a dangerous disease, I apprehend that I shall soon
die. The estate which I have founded has been created through
many difficulties, and the current business of the firm is weighty
and serious, while you, my sons, are still young and unmarried.
In managing the business you cannot be too circumspect, and
should you be able to resign it and do some other thing (obtain

T 2

276 CHINA. [chap.

government employment), it will be well ; otherwise you must
carry on the business as I did, and to aid you I have spoken to
several merchants to be your securities when necessary. Also I
have consulted with several elders as to the greater fitness for
managing tradal concerns, and have found that my fourth son,
Yow-Siin, whose trading name is Tai-Wa, is able to be successor
and master of the hong called Tung-yli. As there will be
trouble in regulating foreign affairs, his salary will be 400 taels
of silver per annum, and the rest of you shall be his assistants
in the establishment, at salaries of 20U taels each. My younger
brother, Chee-On, will still attend to tlie tea-weighing and
delivery, and on account of his old age it is my wish that his
stipend be 1,000 taels per annum. With regard to the value of
the hong and other property — say, for instance, that it is worth
200,000 taels, the same must be divided into ten parts, one of
which must be given to my younger brother in order to comfort
the spirits of my parents, as well as to show brotherly love ; two
of the remaining nine parts must be preserved as hereditary
property, the proceeds of which shall be applied to ancestral
sacrifices. The other seven must be given to you my sous — one
to each. ISTow my first son died in the middle age (i.e. forty)
and left but one daughter, so the second son must give up one
of his sons to be my first (deceased) son's adopted heir, and all
of you must encourage the affairs with union and concord. You
nnist not quarrel nor dispute with each other ; you must be
harmonious and upright in all respects, careful and sincere,
relieving one another with willing hearts, and this by reason of
brotherly connection ; participating in both prosperity and ad-
versity, and using your exertions to enlarge or increase the
possessions. You must not violate or break this on any account ;
and I write this that it may be law among you.

" Wit?} esses : —

" Lam-Mun, Cashier of the Hong.
" ^00-T^OY, -Overseer of Goods.
" Cha-Pak, Book-keeper.
and sundry relatives."

It appears that, besides the sons named, there weie three
daughters, but for them no provision was made.

There are other occasions for what may be termed family
festivals : such are the putting off of mourning, and the entering
upon a new house. I may add that the Chinese are accustomed
to observe fasts as well as feasts. Two of their principal fasts are

XI.] FASTS. 277

held on the IGth day of the 5th month, and the IGth day of the
8tli month, and are called Tieu-Tee-How-Tai, or heaven and earth
meeting together. Some days beforehand, each of these fasts is
announced by red placards posted in the principal streets, and
married people are exhorted to live apart for a time that they
may give themselves to fasting and prayer. The first nine days
of the 9th month are also observed as fast days, in honour of
the gods who inhabit the nine stars, or " Cerberus." Altars are
erected in houses, and fruits and flowers are offered. On the
altars are placed nine candles, nine incense sticks, nine plates of
flowers and fruits respectively, and a tub containing rice, in
which a rod or yard measure is placed in an upright position.
Taouist priests are engaged to offer up prayers, in which pardon
is sought for past sins, and petitions are offered for long life.
On the ninth day especially, sparrows are bought from the
poulterers by the devout, and allowed to escape, an act well
pleasing to the gods. Gentlemen sometimes go into the country,
accompanied by a Buddhist priest, to give the birds their liberty.
Sometimes the sacrifice is a fish bought from the fishmonger,
and set free in its native element.

CHAPTER XII.

FUNERALS.

The mourning ceremonies of the Chinese are very numerous,
and vary of course according to the rank and condition of the
deceased. When the time of dissolution evidently draws near,
it is usual, in the case of a male member of the family, to
remove him to the atrium of the house to die. Here, placed
upon a bed of boards supported on tressels, and with his feet
towards the door, he remains to take his last departure. It is
also usual for the nearest relative to arrange the best robes of
the dying man on the couch beside him, in order that just
before he dies his body may be arrayed in them. The cap or
hat is placed on the pillow, the tunic or coat by the side of
the body, the trousers by the side of the legs, and a boot by
the side of each foot. The sufferer will regard a proceeding of
this nature with the utmost composure, and may sometimes be
heard to express gratitude for having such apparel to appear in
before the spirits of his departed ancestors. As soon as the last
struggle is anticipated, he is washed with warm water in which
fragrant leaves, generally those of the pomeloe tree, have been
boiled. The clothes are then put on him. Death, it need
scarcely be said, is often hastened by this singular practice. The
eyes of the deceased are closed by his nearest relative, in order,
I suppose, that the corpse may assume a less ghastly appearance.
According to Virgil {JEneicl, ix. 487) and Ovid {Her. i. 102, 111;
ii. 102 ; X. 120), a custom very similar to this was observed by
people of other lands. When closing the eyes of the deceased,

XII.] DEATH-BED lUTKS. 279

the relative calls upon liitn by name, and addresses him very
much to the following effect : — " Be not thou sorry on leaving
us ; thou hast gone to bliss, and we thy relatives hope to confer
upon thee posthumous honours, by being ourselves through thy
good influences prosperous upon earth." Shortly after death, a
functionary called the Nam-nio-loo, generally a priest of the
sect of Taou is called in. The Nam-mo-loo, calls upon one of
the spirits — for each Chinese is supposed to be animated by three
spirits — to quit the corpse and hasten to Elysium. The prayer
which he chants, is termed Hoi-Loo, or open the w^ay. He
next casts the horoscope of the deceased, and informs the
relatives how far the spirit has ascended towards Elysium, wdien
it will return on a visit to them, and what form it will assume in
another state of existence. If they are assured that it will
animate the form of a man, they greatly rejoice ; if that of a
beast or reptile, they grieve and offer up intercessory prayers to
the gods, celel)rate masses, and present offerings of gold and
silver paper, folded up so as to resemble ingots of silver and
gold. If the deceased has been a person of consequence, a porch
consisting of a framework of bamboo poles covered with matting
is erected above the entrance door of the house. From the
centre of the porch is suspended a large bunch of strips of blue
and white paper. This is to prevent casual visitors from
entering the house of mourning, and becoming in consequence
unclean. It would appear from Horace {Od. ii. 14, 23), and
other ancient writers, that a custom not very unlike this was
observed by the ancient Eomans. A cypress branch was placed
above the door of the house of mourning to prevent the high
priest from entering and incurring ceremonial pollution. Should
a person die unexpectedly, or before his relatives have had time
to dress him in his best robes, the next-of-kin attires himself in
sackcloth, and hastens to the nearest river or well to buy from
the Hoi-Loong Wong or Eiver Dragon King water wherewith to
wash the face and body of the deceased. Four cash, and in some
instances a live fish as well, are cast into the stream by way of
payment. The fisli is supposed to inform the river god that the
water has been bought and paid for. The nearest of kin is
accompanied to the well or river by several friends, two of whom

280 CHINA.

[chap.

support him, one on each side, for lie is supposed to be bowed
down with grief. The procession is headed by two or more
minstrels, the discordant sounds of whose musical instruments
cannot easily be forgotten by one who has once heard them.
The face and body of the deceased are sprinkled rather than
washed with the water, the rite implying not so much the
cleansing of the body, as the wasliing away of sin. A few hired
attendants belonging to a pariah class called Ng' Tsock.i next
proceed to undress the corpse with the view of bathing it with
warm water (cf Virg. yEn., vi. 219 ; Plin. E2nst. v. 16) and
dressing it in robes becoming the rank of the deceased.
Whilst the Ng' Tsock are attiring the corpse, all the members of
tlie family either stand or kneel around the couch upon which
the dead body is placed. Women eiiGeintc are not permitted to
be present.

Upon the corpse of a person, who was of the first, second, or
third rank, three silk dresses are placed. A rank lower than
the fifth entitles the deceased to only two silk dresses. Whilst
each dress is being placed upon the body, two men stationed
near it Ijeat gongs. The cakes of rice flour which had previously
been placed on the ground, at the foot of the couch as offerings,
are thrown aside during the dressing of the corpse as of no
further service. They are afterwards eaten by the persons who
dress the corpse, or are picked up by beggars, who on such
occasions station themselves in eager expectation at the door.
On one occasion I saw a poor half-starved wretch rush into the
outer hall of a house where a corpse v/as being attired. He was
anxious to get the cakes, but one of the Ng' Tsock who had all
along been keeping his eye upon them, sprang forward, and, to
the great consternation of the mourners, knocked the beggar
down.

When the corpse has been placed in the coffin, one of the
pariah class proceeds to each corner of the chamber, and beats
the floor with a large hammer, to terrify evil spirits. If the

1 So degraded is the position of. the Xg' Tsock as to deprive them of the riglits
of worshipping in the public temples ; and their sons are not allowed to become
candidates for literary degrees. They resemble in many respects the 2}ollinctores
of the ancient Romans.

XII.] ADORNING THE DEAD BODY. 281

deceased belouged to one of the first five ranks, a crown ^ of
gold is placed upon his liead. The crowns vary in costliness.
The wife of such an official is also entitled to a crown. I
once saw the corpse of a wife of an official of the fiftli rank
lying in state. The coronet was made of silver washed witli
gold, and her clothing consisted of silk vestments upon which
flowers and butterflies were embroidered in gold. I have also
seen the remains of Tartar ladies lying in state. Their bodies
were attired in robes more costly, if possible, than those just
described. It is also usual for wealthy Chinese to deck corpses
with diamonds, gold earrings, bracelets either of gold, silver, or
jade, haiT-pins,^ &c. These ornaments are sometimes presented
by the friends of the deceased that he may remember them in
the world of spirits. If the deceased was of the first, second,
or third rank, a pearl, a piece of gold, a piece of silver, a piece
of jade stone and of another precious stone — in all five articles —
are placed in the mouth. To have been of the fourth, fiftli,
sixth, or seventli rank entitles the deceased to a piece of gold
and very small jade stone ornaments of five different forms. The
eighth or ninth rank entitles tlie deceased to a small piece of gold
and a small piece of silver. Inniany instances, however, three
pieces of silver are used ; in others, one piece of silver only, and
amongst the poorer classes three copper cash. It would appear
from Juvenal (iii, 267) that the ancient Eomans used to place
a small coin in the mouth of the dead, to pay Charon for ferry-
ing him across the rivers of Hades. Grains of paddy or seeds
of three different kinds are in some cases placed by the Chinese
in the mouth of the dead. Whilst the corpse is being thus pre-
pared by the Ng' Tsock, the sorrowing relatives who surround
it, turn away their faces. Faithful servants, however, see that
the Ng' Tsock do not despoil the corpse of any of its orna-
ments. It is also usual to place in the coffin any small article
which the deceased was accustomed to prize. I was present
when the corpse of a great friend of mine named Lo Poon-qua

1 This remiiuls one of a custom of the ancient Itomans. Cicero [Dn Leg. ii.
2-i) and Pliny (xxi. 3) state that if a Roman had received a crown for his
bravery it was always placed upon his head when he died.

- Cf. Propertius, iv. 7, 9.

282 : CHINA. . [chap.

was put into the coffin, and his sons placed beside it a copy of an
English and Chinese vocabuhiiy by Dr. Wells Williams. In
this volume, they informed me, their father took great delight,
and he had for several years past spent a portion of each day in
studying it. The hair which has come out in the process of
combing, and the parings of the nails are, in some instances,
inclosed in a bag and placed in the coffin at the feet of the
corpse. The practice of putting valuable articles upon a corpse
offers a strong temptation to thieves to break open the tombs
of the wealthy, and some families are so much alive to this risk,
that they content themselves with using ornaments made of
sandal-wood and gilt. It w^as also customary at one time to
deposit large sums of copper cash wdth a dead body. So great
a sum was deposited in the tomb of the Emperor Hwan-tai of
the Han dynasty, who ascended the throne of China A.D. 147,
that it was plundered by a band of robbers. During the Tsin
dynasty, therefore, which commenced A.D. 265, the practice was
adopted of burning paper representing ingots of gold and silver
— a custom to which I have elsewhere referred.

When the corpse has been placed in the coffin by the Ng'
Tsock, they ascertain whether or not it is placed in a straight
position, by means of a line which they stretch from the head to
the feet. This proceeding is closely watched by the relatives.
The face of the deceased is now covered with a white silk shroud,
and two or more coverlets are placed over the body. These are
presented by relatives and friends. In some instances twenty
or thirty coverlets are presented, and those which are not used
are committed to the flames of a sacred fire, that they may be
conveyed to the world of spirits for the service of the deceased.
It is possible, however, that in some instances they are not
burned, but made use of by the family. These articles, which
are lined with white silk, vary in texture and colour according to
the rank of the deceased. Thus, if the deceased was of the first,
second, or third rank, his coverlet is of a bright red colour ; if he
was of the third or fourth rank, it is dark red ; if he was of
the fifth rank it is green ; if he was of the sixth rank, it is
purple ; if he was of the seventh rank, it is of an ash colour ; and
if he was of the eighth or ninth 'rank, it is white. At the bottom

XII.] COFFINS. 283

of the coffin a loose board is placed, upon which the corpse rests.
It contain seven holes, which are regarded as representing the
seven stars, and is therefore called the " seven stars board." It is
fluted as well as perforated, and a quantity of lime and oil is
deposited between it and the bottom of the coffin. The duty of
placing the lid on the coffin and nailing it down devolves in
some instances upon the nearest of kin. Frequently, however,
he only presents the nails which are used to the undertaker.
He does so, kneeling by the side of the coffin, and holding up
with both hands, until the undertaker has finished, a plate con-
taining the nails. At the close of this ceremony, he is presented
with an ornament of copper made to resemble a lotus flower, with
a long stem and several small pieces of silk of various colours
attached. This he places in an upright position on the centre
of the lid of the coffin, where it remains until the day of the
funeral, when it is laid on the ancestral altar. This ornament,
which by the Chinese is termed Tsze-Shun-Tay, is, so I have
been given to understand by well-informed Chinese, emble-
matical of the never-ending posterity of the family of the departed
one. The coffin, having been closed, is now hermetically sealed
by means of chunam.

The Chinese consider coffins indispensable for the repose of the
dead ; and in almost all their towns and villages there are what
are termed coffin societies, or, as they are sometimes called, Long-
life Loan Companies. In the prefecture of Kwang-chow, in the
province of Kwang-tung, there are several such companies.
Every member is entitled to a coffin and grave clothes. Persons
who wish to become members must have attained sixteen years
of age. In the third month of each year, a general meeting is
held when each member pays his annual subscription of three
hundred and sixty cash. The names of those who do not pay
their yearly subscriptions are removed from the list of members.
The period during which each person is called upon to subscribe
to the general fund is sixteen years, and at the close of this
peiiod he is regarded as an honorary member. Should any
member die from home, the sum due for his funeral expenses
is paid to his heirs.

A Chinese coffin is very substantially made, and in shape

281 CHINA. [cnAr.

resembles the trunk of a tree. Tliree kinds of wood are especially
used. The first, called Chum-Sha, is very heavy and sinks in
water. The second is termed Ting-Chow, and the third Lou-
Chow. The wood of a coffin is from four to five inches thick,
and the cost varies from four to three or four thousand dollars.
As a rule the coffin receives two or three coatings of lacquer.
That of a duke is covered with red lacquer, and further decorated
with representations of flowers in gold. That of a marquis, or
an earl, or a baron, is covered with red lacquer, but has no gold
flowers. That of a gentleman of any of the first five ranks may
be covered with a coating of red lacquer. In the case of the
remaining four ranks the cofiin is covered with a coating of
black lacquer ; in the case of the poorer classes it is plain and
unvarnished.

All men upwards of sixty years of age are supposed to have
their coffins ready, and it is not unusual, when fathers or mothers
have completed their sixty-first year, for sons to present them
with one as a suitable birthday gift. These presents are sometimes
deposited in monasteries and temples, where they remain until
they are required. At Shanghai I visited a monastery which
contained several coffins deposited for safe keeping. And in a
temple in honour of the Sleeping Buddha at Nankin, I saw a
coffin brought in by an old man of the age of seventy-five, to
whom it had that very day been presented by his sons. At
Canton and other cities of the south of China, people sometimes
keep their coffins in their houses. This is also the case in the
midland provinces; I observed coffins in several houses in
Kiukiang and Hankow. During my stay at Woo-see Hien, on
the banks of the Grand Canal, I saw a family in the act of
moving to a neighbouring town, and the father, a very aged
man, carried his coffin with him, regarding it, I was told, as of
far more value than all his furniture. The Chinese do not now
inclose their dead in two coffins, but in one only. During the
Chow dynasty two coffins were invariably used, but this custom
was, it is said, set aside during the dynasty of Tong.

But to return to the rites which are observed in a house of
mourning. The coffin having received the corpse, is placed upon
trestles near the ancestral altar ; and upon the ground imme-

XII.] :\ioi:rnix(} CEEEMONIES. 285

diately underneath it a lamp is made to stand upon three bricks.
In order that it may be kept burning day and night, it is assidu-
ously replenished with oil by the chief mourner, or his substitute.
It is supposed to give light to the spirit which remains with the
corpse. On the east side of the coffin is a clothes stand, on
which are placed the robes, hat, and shoes of the deceased. So
soon as the coffin and lamp have been placed, the relatives
arrange themselves on each side, and do obeisance to the spirit.
This continues during the first seven weeks of mourning, and is
accompanied, especially before the morning and evening meal,
with loud lamentations. A portion of food is on these occasions
presented to the deceased, whose merits the conductor of cere-
monies l)ids those assembled keep fresh in their memories. In
the length and loudness of their lamentations for the dead the
Chinese rival the ancient Egyptians. It is indeed well known
that all orientals give forcible expression to their grief on such
occasions. St. Mark in his Gospel (v. 38) speaks of " them that)
wept and wailed greatly ; " and again, in the Acts of the Apostles
(viii. 2) we read uf " devout men " who " made great lamentation
over Stephen." On the 7th, 14th, 21st, 28th, ;35tli, 42nd, and
49t]i days of the period of mourning, the lamentations are louder
and more frequent. At early dawn on each of these days, the
relatives go into the street, and, kneeling down in front of the
door of the house, lament bitterly. Their lamentations at such
times are, I believe, more particularly for the soul of the deceased
wdiich is supposed to be on its way to Elysium ; and food and
offerings are therefore placed on the door-steps for the wandering
spirit. Offerings on a very extensive scale are also presented to
the soul, which is supposed to remain with the body. For
example, a wealthy family offers on the 7th day the carcase of a
sheep and nine dishes of as many different viands, together with
wine. A feast is also made ready for the friends of the family.
The offerings are regulated by sumptuary laws. Seven slieep
are sacrificed to the manes of a duke, 40,000 paper ingots of gold
are burned in a sacred fire, and no less than fifteen tables are
spread with viands of various kinds. In honour of a marquis
six sheep are sacrificed, 3C,000 paper ingots of gold are burned,
and thirteen tables are spread with viands. For an earl there

286 CHINA. ■ [ciiAP.

are six sheep, 32,000 paper ingots of gold, and twelve
tables; for a person of the first rank, civil or military, five
sheep, 28,000 paper ingots of gold, and ten tables. In this
way the value and number of the sacrifices diminish with each
descent in rank. For a gentleman of the ninth rank, or of no
rank, one sheep is sacrificed.. 5,000 paper ingots of gold are
burned, and two tables are spread. The banquet which is
served up on the 21st day is especially in honour of the spirit
which is destined to find its way to Elysium, and which on the
day in c^uestion is supposed to return on a visit to the house. On
this day all the members of the family carefully refrain from
entering the hall in which the repast is spread, generally re-
maining in their private rooms. The entrance doors of the house
are closed, and the neighbours also shut their doors. These
arrangements are owing to a dread lest the visiting spirit should
be disturbed and provoked to anger. This superstition originated
in the Tong dynasty, A.D. 620, its most powerful advocate at the
time in question being a literary character named Lee Tsay-pak.
The family of the deceased, as a rule, do not put on their
mourning robes until the tliird day after death, on the ground
that it is a duty to entertain, for a few days at least, a hope of
the probability of resuscitation. The dresses worn are of coarse
sackcloth. The sons or nearest of kin to the deceased wear, in
addition, caps of the same material. From the top of each
cap small balls, made of cotton, hang by threads. That sack-
cloth dresses were in ancient times worn liy Asiatic mourners
is evident from various passages of Scripture.^ Chinese mourners
allow their finger-nails, and tlie hair of the head as well as the
beard, to grow during the first seven weeks of their bereavement.
According to Herodotus, these observances were practised by
the common people of Egypt, and there is a reference to them
in the second book of Samuel (xix. 24). Cliinese mourners, it
need hardly be said, are very dirty in appearance. Occasionally
all the members of the bereaved family fast, and for some
time a strict separation is maintained between husbands and
wives. They are, moreover, prohibited from giving their sons
and daughters in marriage ; and must close their ears against

^ Cf. Job xvi. 15, 16 ; 1 Kings xxi. 27 ; and Jonah iii. 8.

XII.] MOURNING CEREMONIES. 287

good tidings of any kind. To frequent theatres, or to listen to
music, during such seasons of sorrow is regarded as highly
indecorous. Tlie ordinary red covers are removed from the
chairs and other articles of furniture in the house, and replaced
by others of a blue or mourning colour. The pictures on the
walls of the various rooms are either taken down, or turned
towards the wall, and frescoes, or ornaments which cannot be
removed, are covered with sheets of -white paper. All members
of the family Avho were absent at the time of the death are
immediately called home. If sons of the deceased, they are
made, upon entering the house for the first time after their
parent's death, to creep upon all-fours as a mark of their deep
humiliation and grief. The married daughter of tlie deceased,
also, leaves her husband for seven days, in order that she too
may attire herself in sackcloth and join in the lamentations of
the family. On the seventh day, however, she throws aside
her robes of sackcloth, and entering a sedan-chair is borne by
four bearers to the house of her husband. In front of her
sedan-chair, even though it be broad daylight, lighted lanterns
of a gay colour are suspended. This is to imply that, though
sorrow prevails at the house of her parents, joy and gladness are,
or ought to be, found in the dwelling of her husband. On her
arrival at the door of her husband's house, she is made to step
over a fire of straw with the view of being purified. In passing
through the Lin-fa-cheng street of the city of Canton, I once
saw an old woman with small feet passing through a fire of this
kind. Her dress was partially set on fire, and had not aid been
promptly rendered she would have fallen a victim to her obser-
vance of the custom. In their fcricc chnicalcs the ancient Romans
observed a somewliat similar practice. On the tentli day after
the death of a person, the house was swept with a broom of
a particular kind, and the inmates also purified themselves by
stepping over a fire.

For seven days after a man's death his widow and children
shew the intensity of their grief by sitting not upon chairs, but
upon the ground. At night also they sleep, not in their beds,
but upon mats spread on the ground near the coffin. During
this period no food is cooked in the house, and friends and

288 CHINA. • [chap.

neighbours are trusted to supply the common necessaries of life.
A similar custom was observed in Palestine in very early times.^
Moreover, in eating the food thus supplied the family are not
allowed to use chop-sticks, but their liands only. Nor are they
permitted to use needles or knives during this period of grief.
On the seventh day, however, it is customary for the sons or
nearest of kin to the deceased, that is, if he has died at a very
advanced age, to kindle a fire in the court-yard of the house and
boil thereon a quantity of rice, they themselves sitting round the
fire to superintend the operation. The women sit round the fire,
giving vent to their grief. The rice, in the pan in which it has
been boiled, is placed before the tablet of the deceased ; and the
Nam-Mo-loo rings a small hand-bell and utters a few prayers.
The pan is then opened, and a bowl of the rice is taken to be
presented in due form to the tablets of the family ancestors.
Another bowl of it is presented to the tablet of the departed,
and the remainder is distributed in small quantities amongst the
family and the neighbours and friends. This rice is regarded as
lucky, and, in many instances, the neighbours hasten to the
house of the deceased lest their share of it should be forgotten.
This ceremony is called by the Chinese, Chu-shou-fan, or " the
boiling of longevity rice."

Letters are now written to all the relatives and friends of the
deceased, informing them of the death. They are written upon
paper of a light brown colour, and inclosed m envelopes of the
same material. The paper is so folded that the first character
that meets the eye is that of sorrow. The letters are stereotyped,
and the following is a translation of one which fell into my
hands : —

" My sins are many and heinous, and for them I ought to die.
My life, however, is spared. The gods, nevertheless, have
punished me by causing the death of my father. He died on the
5th day of the 10th month in the large hall of his dwelling-
house. Now with reverence, and bowed down with grief, I
hereby inform my friends of the sad calamity. My mother is
now alone. (The names of the son and grandson of the
deceased follow.)

^ Cf. 2 Sam. iii. 35 ; Jer. xvi. 7 ; and Ezekiel xxiv. 17.

^^'•■ms

XII.] MOURNING CEREMONIES. 289

" Kwock A-tam, ) who shed tears of blood, and who bow
" Kwock A-cheoiig, f their hearts to the earth with grief."

TJie names of tlie nephews are also recorded, and opposite to
their names are placed characters which respectively signify
" Oar tears flow, and our heads are bowed down with grief."
These letters are in some instances delivered ])y the grandsons
or nephews of the deceased, in others by servants attired in
mourning. This singular custom of a son attributing to his sins
the death of his father, or vice versd, was evidently observed by
the inhabitants of the land of Canaan. Thus in the First Book
of Kings (xvii. 18) the widow of Zarephath is represented as
saying to Elijah the prophet upon the death of her son, " Art
thou come unto me to call ray sin to remembrance and to slay
my son ? " The period of the day selected for the delivery of
such letters is the evening. The bearers do not in all cases
deliver them to the servants of the persons to whom they are
addressed, but throw them over the hall doors; for the Chinese
regard it as unlucky to see at their doors one who is attired in
mourning apparel. Presents of money are immediately forwarded
to the house of mourning l:)y all persons receiving such letters.
The money, which is termed Fo-yee, " helping money," is spent
upon incense, candles, and offerings for the soul of the dead.
The members of the family in due course present their sym-
pathizing friends with small porcelain bowls, or tea or wine
cups of the same material. On the steps of the entrance door of
the house a white board is placed, on which are recorded in black
letters the hour, day, and year in which the deceased was born ;
the hour, day, and year in which he died ; his names and titles ;
tlie names and titles of his sons, and the names of his grandsons
and nephews. On the 21st day of the period of mourning,
three large paper birds resembling storks are placed on high poles
in front of the house. The birds are supposed to carry the soul
to Elysium ; and during the next three days, Buddhist priests
address prayers to the ten kings of the Buddhist hades, calling
on them to hasten the flight of the departed soul to the Western
Paradise.

As the coffin is kept in the house of mourning for a period of
VOL. T. U

290 CHINA. [chap.

seven weeks, or forty-nine days, an altar is erected near it in
the atrium. The altar is placed immediately in front of a chair
which stands upon a temporary dais, and upon which a portrait
of the deceased and a tablet bearing his name are placed.
For this purpose every Chinese gentleman has his portrait taken.
Sometimes, although rarely, they have small wooden effigies
made instead. Thus, on one occasion I saw an idol of a general
named Muh, who was at the time in command of the Tartar
troops at Canton. The idol had been presented to him by the
troops, and was kept in the temple of the Five Genii. Muh
afterwards took the idol — a faithful representation of himself —
to Tartary. Again, a gentleman named Cham Kom-tsune, who
resided in the old city of Canton, had a wooden image of him-
self in his ancestral hall. In Buddhist temples I have also
occasionally seen very small clay or wooden images of priests,
made against the day of their death. Offerings consisting of
various kinds of fruits are neatly arranged on the altar ; and
immediately in front of the tablet, a cup of tea, a plate of food,
and a pair of chop-sticks are placed. If the deceased has been
addicted to the vice of opium-smoking, an opium pipe is placed
on the altar, which is also covered with such flowers as are in
season. Near the chair on which the tablet is placed stands a
long bamboo pole with a streamer made of dark red satin, and
bearino- iu letters of gold the names and titles of the deceased.
The streamer, like the other appointments, varies according to
the rank of the deceased. In the case of gentlemen of the first
three ranks, it is ninety Chinese inches long ; streamers of less
length being used for those of inferior rank. In the case of
each person who dies at a tolerably advanced period of life, two
long strings of copper cash are attached to this pole. In the
case, however, of a person of middle age, only one string of
copper cash is affixed to the pole. Upon the seventh day of
mourning, presents of various kinds are sent by sympathizing
friends. These are intended for the soul of the dead man, and
consist of candles, or cakes, or banners, and a small sum of
money. Upon the banners, which are either of a blue or white
colour, are letters of gold, which set forth the merits of the
deceased ; and, as they are thereby supposed to convey sympathy '

XII.] MOURNING CEREMONIES. ' 291

to tlie mourners, the banners are regarded in the light of letters
of condolence. A letter is sent also with the present ; and the
tenor of this document may be gathered from the following
translation of one which fell into my hands : — ■

" Awong, wdio is 3'our stupid and young brother, presents
to you herewith two banners on which are written words of
comfort. He also sends one roast pig, two baskets of cakes
of flour, a variety of fruits, a bottle of wine, and a small
sum of money, $10, I lament with many and bitter tears
your death, but most of all do I sorrow that your stay in this
world was so short. The 3rd day of the 10th month of the 3rd
year of the reign of Tung-chee."

The letter is cast into a sacred fire, in order that it may be
conveyed to the departed spirit. Within the door of the house
of mourning a person sits at a table registering the presents, so
that when the days of mourning are ended a gift of equal value
may be presented in the name of the departed one to each donor.
The banners to which I have referred, are, so soon as they are
received, placed upon the inner walls of the house of mourning,
and impart to the dwelling-house, especially by night when the
halls are lighted up, a most imposing appearance. In the case of
wealthy persons, the banners are very large and costly, and so
numerous as to cover the spacious walls. The other gifts, such
as fruits, flowers, cakes, and tapers, are placed upon the altar as
eucharistical offerings to the spirit of the deceased. On this
same day, each donor calls at the house of mourning for the
purpose of w^orshipping the spirit of the deceased, and present-
ing a burning incense stick, widch is placed on the altar. The
friends who come for this purpose do not appear in a court dress,
but in a raiment of dark cloth. Those on whom the badge of
the peacock's feather has been conferred do not wear it on this
occasion. Within the porch of the liouse of mourning on this
day, three or four musicians are seated, who play doleful tunes
upon their shrill and discordant pipes when visitors arrive.
This practice has many times reminded me of the passage in
which St. Matthew (ix, 23) tells how "Jesus came into the
ruler's house, and saw the minstrels and people making a noise."
Again, on this same day, that is the seventh day of mourning,

u 2

292 CHINA. [ciiAr.

priests of the sect of Buddha, or of that of Taou, are called in
to assist, by their prayers, the flight of the departed spirit
towards Elysium. They erect, in a room which immediately
adjoins the hall in which the coftin is placed, seven altars.
Above these they suspend pictures, which represent respectively
the past, present, and future Buddha, and ten other pictures,
each of which represents one of the ten kingdoms of the
Buddhist hades. At stated intervals, masses are said for the
repose of the soul of the deceased. Tiie poorer classes, unable
to retain the services of Buddhist priests, seek on such occasions
the services of the Xam-mo-loo, a functionary to wliom I have
already referred. These ceremonies are again repeated on the
14th, 21st, 28th, 35th, 44th, and 49th days of mourning, the
21st being by far the most important of these days. The
expenses which are incurred on the 3oth day are defrayed Ity
the female members of the family. When the spirit of a
deceased person who held high rank is the object of worship,
the rites and ceremonies are upon a very grand and expensive
scale, and make a deep impression upon the minds of the
Chinese.

Thus, on the death of H. E. rhih^:Wei, the governor-general
of the two Kwangs, all the officers, '\\-hether civil or military,
who were serving at the time in Canton and its environs,
repaired on the 21st and 35th days of mourning to the palace
where the body was lying in state ; and the homage rendered
to the deceased was apparently not a mere form. On this, as
on many other occasions, I observed that while each votary
worshipped the tablet, the sons, who were dressed in sackcloth,
prostrated themselves upon the ground in deep humiliation and
sorrow. The youths, still in a recumbent position, were then
saluted by each votary, and politely acknowledged tlie compli-
ments which liad been paid to the shade of their father. If
the house in which a deceased person is lying in state is too
small to receive many worshippers, it is not unusual to remove
the portrait and tablet of the deceased, with the red satin
streamer which bears his names and titles, to the public hall of
a neighbouring temple. This, however, is probably seldom done,
except at the funeral ceremonies of officials. Thus the remains

XII.] MOURNING CEREMONIES. 293

of Loi Tsung-ueen, a famous general wlio was killed at the
siege of Soo-cliow, were brought back to Canton, which was his
native place, and placed in one of the temples, to receive the
homage of the grandees of the city. I also witnessed a similar
ceremony in honour of a distinguished soldier named Cheong
Kwok-laong, who fell fighting bravely in a battle with the
insurgents in Kong-nam. In the month of August, ISGl, I
saw in one of the state temples in Canton the funeral of the
Emperor Hien-fung. The despatch containing the melancholy
intelligence of the Emperor's death was received at ]\Ia-tow — an
official landing place in the vicinity of the city — by the officials
attired in robes of sackcloth. It was then entrusted to a herald,
who, with his hands raised above his head, carried it, in the midst
of loud lamentations, to the Tsip-Koon-Teng, or hall of audience,
where he read it aloud in the hearing of all the officials. The
officials then proceeded to the temple of Kwan-te, where, upon
a dais, stood a throne covered with yellow silk, and screened
from view by curtains of the same material. The officials, i.e.^
the civil officers with the governor-general, and the military
officers with the Tartar general, at their head, having arranged
themselves, the former on the left, and the latter on the right
side of the throne, prostrated themselves on the ground at a
command given by the conductor of ceremonies. Each officer,
at the same time, either cried, or attempted to cry. Indeed,
several of them succeeded in working themselves into such fits
of frenzy that saliva was actually oozing from their nostrils and
mouths. This highly ridiculous ceremony was repeated on
several days in succession ; and for many weeks the citizens
were not allowed to shave their lieads, or to frequent places of
public resoi't and entertainment.

Let us now proceed to consider the manner in which the
Chinese dispose of their dead. In the very earliest times it was
customary for almost all nations to bury the dead out of their
sight. Thus in the Bible, which is the oldest book we can read,
there are only two instances recorded of the practice of getting
rid of the dead by cremation. The one instance, which is con-
tained in the First Book of Samuel (xxxi. 12), refers to the burn-
ing of the bodies of Saul and his sons : and the other, in the

294 CHINA. [chap.

Book of the propliet Amos (\d. 10), refers to the burning of the
bodies of certain persons who had died during a time of
pestilence. The Chinese are no exception to this apparently
general rule. Cremation is only resorted to by the majority
of the priests of the sect of Buddha. It ought also to be
stated that in tlie province of Kiang-nan it was customary
during the Sing dynasty, a.d. 960, to burn the dead. In
each village throughout tlie province in question there was a
place for the purpose, called Fa-Yan-Ting, or recej)tacle for
men's ashes. The ashes when removed from the funeral pyre
were not unfrequently cast into the neighbouring rivers or
creeks. There was also at a later period, in the same province,
a Buddhist temple called Toong-Tsze, to wdiich the priest urged
the people to bring their dead for cremation, declaring that
the souls of the departed would in consequence become
Buddhas. The funeral pyre in the monastery having been struck
by liglitning, many persons who saw in this a mark of Divine
displeasure, memorialized the governor of the province not to
allow the pyre to be re-erected. With these few exceptions, it
would appear that, throughout the wliole of their national
history, the Chinese have observed the practice of burying the
dead. The Mongolians, on the other hand, have recourse to
cremation, but as the ceremony is a very expensive one among
them, it is in a great measure confined to the wealthy classes.
The poor of Mongolia expose their dead in remote parts of the
plains over which they w^ander, and leave them to be devoured
by wild beasts, wolves and foxes in particular. The summit of
a hillock is generally selected for a funeral pyre, and it is
customary for the relatives to mark the spot where the body has
been burned, by erecting a pile of stones. I passed several such
cairns on the plains of Inner Mongolia.

Chinese families who are unable to find or to purchase a
lucky place for interment, not unfrequently deposit coftins
containing the dead on the sides of hills, which are used as
cemeteries, until .such time as they shall be able to afford the due
rites of burial. In some instances the cofiins are allowed to
remain exposed for several years, during which, however, the
customary acts of homage are paid to the remains of the

xii.] RITES OF SEPULTURE. 295

deceased. In other instances poverty, change of residence, or
death, prevents the relatives from removing the coffins, which,
neglected for a long time, are at last buried at the public
expense. In a temple called Tsze-Tchu-]\Iiu, in the western
suburb of Canton, a fund was established in 1870 to purchase a
plot of ground for the interment of several coffins which had
been left exposed for many years on the hill-sides of Pechung,
a village about seven miles distant from the city. Contributors
to this fund were of course moved by pity for the unhappy souls
of the unburied dead. Shortly after the neglected bodies had been
interred I visited the place, and found three or four men who had
come, so they informed me, from the distant village of Tai-shek,
to exhume the Ijody of one of their ancestors. As the name had
been painted on each coffin, and as there was a small head-stone
to each grave, they had no difficulty in finding the remains.
The bones were put into a cinerary urn for removal to the village,
in which generations of the family had probably lived and died.

Like other nations of antiquity, the Chinese regard the rites
of sepulture as of the utmost importance. The loss of such rites,
which death by drowning or in battle often involves, is regarded
as nothing short of a calamity. That the ancient Jews held
similar views as to the importance of the rites of sepulture
is evident from several passages in the Old Testament,^ and
the ancient Eomans believed that the spirits of those whose
corpses had not been buried were not allowed, for a hundred
years at least, to cross the river Styx. So much, indeed, were
the latter impressed with the importance of sepulture, that for
friends who had perished, and whose bodies could not be found,
they performed the rites at empty tombs. This custom has its
parallel amongst the Chinese, who, in their devout respect for the
dead, are in no way behind the classical nations of antiquity.
During the reign of the emperor Chan-tuk, in the first century
of the Christian era, it was enacted that if the bodies of soldiers
who fall in battle, or those of sailors who fall in naval engage-
ments, cannot be recovered, the spirits of such men shall be
called back by prayers and incantations, and that figures shall
be made either of paper or of wood for their reception, and be

1 I refer to 2 Sam. xxi. 9-14 ; 2 Kings ix. 28-34 ; Ps. Ixxix. 2 ; Ec. vi. 3. ;

290 CHINA. [chap.

buried with all the ordinary rites. It is recorded in the annals
of China, that the first persons who conformed to this singular
enactment were the sons of an officer named Lee Hoo, who fell
in battle, and whose body could not be recovered. The custom
is now universally observed. On the occasion of a visit which
I paid to Tai-laak, the capital of the ninety-six villages, I had
an opportunity of seeing so singular a ceremony. An effigy of
the missing man, clad in robes of the most costly kind, was
placed on the ground, and a number of men and women, dressed
in deep mourning, knelt round it. In the centre of the circle
a Taouist priest invoked the spirit to come to the body prepared
for it, and accompany it to the tomb. Lest the soul of the
deceased should be imprisoned in one of the ten kingdoms
of the Buddhist hades, miniature representations of the infernal
prisons were made by means of small clay flags or tiles. They
reminded one of dolls' houses. Prayers in which the kings of
the infernal regions were in turn invoked, were then offered,
and at the conclusion of each invocation the priest with a short
magic wand dashed to the ground one of the miniature prisons.
The effigy was eventually, with the usual observances, put into
a coffin and conveyed to the grave by the sorrowing relatives.
I was told before leaving the spot, that the man who Avas
supposed to be dead had several years before gone as a travelling
merchant to the neighbouring province of Kwang-si, but that
since then his relatives had not heard of him. They concluded
that he had been lost at sea, or killed by pirates. Sometimes
persons whose obsequies have been celebrated in consequence
of their supposed death, return to their ^family hearths and
altars. I was acquainted with a native of Tsze-kai, a village
near Si-nam, in the county of Nam-hoi, who, when a youth, was
kidnapped and sold as a slave in Havanna, where he remained
for a period of twenty years. His friends naturally concluded
that he was dead. The ceremonies necessary in such a case were
observed, and his younger brothers, nephews, and cousins per-
formed the customary acts of v,-6rship at a tal)let bearing his name,
and placed on the ancestral altar of the family. The absentee
returned to the home of his fathers in 1870, and is now a
fruiterer in the Loo-pai-hong street of the western suburb of

XII.] THE SELECTION OF A GRAVE. 297

Canton. There is a law in China, that the sons of missing
parents shall wear slight mourning, and on no account frequent
places of public entertainment. This law, however, is, I appre-
hend, more honoured in the breach than in the observance.
The sites which the Chinese — who are great believers in geomancy
— consider most propitious for tombs, are the sides of hills,
whence a view of rivers, creeks, lakes or ponds, can be obtained.
The hills near cities and towns are often literally covered
with tombs — melancholy memorials of the antiquity and popu-
lousness of the habitable places of the Empire. The hills by
which the White Cloud mountains are approached from Canton
may be termed vast mounds of human dust. They are literally
bestudded with graves from base to summit. Seen on a summer's
evening, by the light of the setting sun, they present a very
striking appearance, and I shall never forget my feelings, as I
gazed one evening from the monastery of Pak-wan-um^ upon
the melancholy spectacle of this vast pagan grave-yard.

For a lucky spot for a tomb wealtliy families pay large sums
of money. Not content with a space similar in area to that
which is ordinarily allotted in Europe to each mortal, they in
some instances purchase for one tomb an area sufficiently large
for the erection of a spacious mansion. The selection of a site
for a tomb is entrusted to a geomancer. This functionary in the
discharge of such a duty not unfrequently spends several days
on the sides of the mountains. He is provided with a compass,
wherewith to ascertain the exact position of the spot he may
select ; and in some instances he is accompanied not only by two
or three of the nearest relatives of the deceased, but by two or
three men with pickaxes and spades, who dig up here and there
portions of the soil for his inspection. The Chinese call the
men of the pariah class who accompany the geomancer, Shan-
Kow, or mountain-dogs. So soon as a site has been obtained,
a fortune-teller is called upon to name a propitious day
for digging the grave. The grave-dinners must not befjin
their work before the members of the family of the
deceased have worshipped the genii of the mountain ; and a
letter addressed to these gods is read aloud by the nearest of

' This monastery is situate beyond the north-east gate of Canton.

298 CHINA. [cuAP.

kin, who on the occasion in question wears not monrning, but
court costume. All such letters are written in precisely the
same words, and the following is a translation of one which I
had an opportunity of seeing : — " We, the sons and relatives

of , who died on the , intend to bury his remains here,

and, as it is now our desire to make ready the tomb, we pray
you not only to grant your sanction to such a proceeding on our
part, but at all times to care for and prosper us. Moreover, Ave
most respectfully beg to offer unto you offerings of fruits and
wines, which be graciously pleased to accept." The kow-tow
having been performed by each person present, the letter is
despatched to the gods by being committed to the flames.
When the grave is being prepared, a member of the family is
present in order to superintend tlie operations of the workmen,
and a temporary mat hut is erected. The bottom of the grave
is lined with a layer, three inches thick, of lime mixed with
powdered charcoal. Over this is placed a board, covered with
a layer of charcoal dust, which is made very hard by being
tramped down. The grave having been prepared, it is necessary
that a lucky day and hour should be selected for the burial.
This sometimes occasions a delay of several days, or weeks, as
the case may be. So anxious were the relatives of a person
with whom I was acquainted to select a really lucky day for his
interment, that they actually delayed it for several months,
placing in the prepared grave, as is customary on such occasions,
a slab on which the name of the deceased was painted. In some
districts it is customary to delay the burial, should one or more
of the ladies of the bereaved family be enceinte. In such a case
the funeral does not take place until the expected birth has
taken place. The grandmother of a gentleman with whom I
was on very intimate terms, remained unburied for several
years, because one or other of the ladies of the family were
enceinte.

On the day before the burial, the relatives, in mourning gar-
ments, repair to the house. of the deceased to weep and lament
by the cofitin. A long white streamer, which is termed the soul-
cloth, is borne l)y the relatives to the ancestral hall, in order
that the soul may take leave of the spirits of the ancestors of

xn.] THE DAY BEFORE THE BURIAL. 299

the family. It was, I believe, customary in former times to take
the cottiii into the ancestral hall for the puri:)ose. At this leave-
taking, the relatives, who place themselves in front of the an-
cestral tablets, give vent to loud lamentations. In some provinces
the mourners, on the day preceding the funeral, purify the
streets and houses along the route which the procession is to
take. This ceremony, termed Khan-loo-Shuee, is observed as
follows : Taouist or Buddhist priests, whichever may be sum-
moned, offer up prayers at the house of mourning for the repose
of the soul, and, informing it of the intention of the friends to
bury the body on the morning, entreat it to accompany the
body to its last resting-place. A procession is then formed,
which marches througli the streets of the city or village along
which the body is to pass. Each priest is provided with a rude
musical instrument, upon which he plays, in order to charm the
evil spirits in the neighbourhood, and prevail upon them not to
a])pear as the funeral cavalcade passes, lest they should affright
the departed soul and cause it to return to the dwelling-house.
The procession is headed by a youth carrying in his left hand a
small tub of holy water, and in his right a bunch of hyssop.
He sprinkles the streets and shops with the water, in order to
preclude the possibility of evil spirits lurking in them. On the
only occasion on which I witnessed a procession of this kind,
it consisted of Taouist priests, attired in costly robes of blue
satin, and provided with musical instruments, on which they
discoursed what appeared to me a solemn dirge. The youth
wlio, attired for the occasion, carried the holy water, entered
each shop and sprinkled the floor. Evidently the occupants,
who all seemed to welcome him, entertained no doubt of the
efficacy of the rite.

On the night preceding the day of the burial of a person who
has died at a very advanced age, it is usual in some villages
for the neighbours to assemble at the house of mourning and
beat gongs, tom-toms, and drums at frequent intervals, or sing
songs. At three or four o'clock on the morning of the funeral
all the decorations erected in front of the door are taken
down and set on fire, amidst the bowlings and lamentations
of the bereaved relatives. At a later hour, tables covered with

300 CHINA. '■ [f-HAp.

viands are placed before the tablet of the deceased, and the
spirit is addressed as follows by the JSTam-nio-loo : " We are now
about to remove your remains to the tomb ; and as you must
of necessity accompany them to the tomb, and there remain
with them in perpetuity,^ we have prepared for you a parting
feast. Partake of it, we pray you." The conclusion of this
address is followed by a sudden outburst of lamentation from
the assembled family.

When the deceased had reached the age of sixty years, or
upwards, a man stations himself at the door and beats a gong to
summon the friends and neighbours. Tlie distant relatives and
friends await tlie arrival of the corpse in the street, the im-
mediate relatives remaining within. Previous to the lifting of
the body, the Xam-mo-loo sets a quantity of paper on fire, and
waves it along and round the coffin, which it is supposed to purify
and light up. The Nam-mo-loo then calls upon the departed
spirit to accompany the coffin to the tomb, while the sorrowing
relatives stand around weeping and lamenting. This ceremony
ended, the eldest son removes the tablet of the deceased, and
places it in a sedan-chair. He places the portrait in another chair,
over the top of which he arranges a streamer of red satin on
which the name and titles of the deceased are recorded in letters
of gold. The various offerings carried in a Chinese funeral
procession having also been placed under gilded canopies, the
coflBn-bearers enter the house. As they are in the act of
lifting the coffin, all the relatives rush, in a state of great
alarm, into the adjoining apartments. They are afraid lest
the day selected for the burial by the geomancer should be un-
propitious, and the soul of the deceased should in wrath aflflict
those present with sickness or other calamities. The first time
I witnessed this superstition was at the funeral of an old Hong
merchant named Lo Poon-qua. Ignorant of the custom, I was
somewdiat startled at the stampede of mourners which took
place as soon as the bearers began to lift the cofifiu. When the

^ The idea that the soul is. buried with the body was entertained by the
Roman.s. Virgil describes ^Eneas as having entombed the soul of Polydorus in
a sepulchre : —

" Animamqne sepulchro
Condimus."

xi:.] Til 10 FUNERAL PROCESSION. 301

iiionient of daiiger was sujtposed to have passed, the mourners
returned from their places of concealment. No Avarning had
been given to me, and I naturally felt that the Chinese were
only acting, as usual, on the principle that self-preservation
is the first law of nature. As the body is carried across the
threshold, offerings are presented to the soul of the departed.
The coffin is placed upon a bier in the street, where it remains
during other funeral ceren:)onies. The males and females of the
family, for instance, march round it in solemn procession.

The funeral corUge, which is now formed, includes, among
others, the followang functionaries: — two men bearing large
lanterns, recording the family name, age, and titles of the
deceased ; two men, each bearing a gong which he beats loudly
at intervals, to give warning of the approach of the cavalcade ;
and sixteen musicians, innnediately followed by men with flags,
and l:»y others carrying red boards with the titles of the deceased
and of his ancestors inscribed on them in letters of gold. The
boards are replaced, after the funeral, in the hall of the house.
A similar ceremony was practised in the funeral processions of
the ancient Komans — images of the ancestors being cariied
before the corpse. These ancestral busts were kept in the
atrium of the house, and bore the titles and honours and
a summary of the exploits of the deceased. The ancestral tablets
are followed by four richly carved and gilded canopies — carried
sometimes by horses, sometimes by men — under each of which
are arranged offerings for the dead. The portrait of the de-
ceased comes next, carried in a sedan-chair, and followed by
a band of musicians. Next comes a sedan-chair, with a wooden
tablet inscribed with the name of the deceased. Tlien follows
a man called Pong-Loo-Tchun-Yan, who scatters at intervals
pieces of paper, supposed to re])resent ingots of gold or silver.
The mock money is intended I'or hungry ghosts, i.e., ibr the
souls of men who have died at the corners of the streets. These
restless spirits, if not appeased, will greatly troul)le the departed
soul. Next come the sons of the deceased, each attired in deep
mourning. The eldest son carries a wooden staff in one hand at
his father's funeral, and a bamboo staff at his mother's funeral.
Strips of white paper are twined round the staff. In the other

302 CHINA. [chap.

hand, at the end of a bamboo pole, he carries a white streamer,
called the soul-cloth, and supposed to summon the soul to
accompany the body. A cock is carried in the funeral pro-
cession for the same purpose. On either side of the eldest son,
who is supposed to be bowed down by grief, a person walks to
support him. Behind him follows the bier, sometimes drawn by
horses. When they are not used, sixty-four men are appointed
to draw the bier of a person of the first or second rank ; forty-
eight, that of a person of the third, fourth, or fifth ranks ; and
thirty-two, that of a person of tlie sixth or seventh rank. The
corpse is followed by the relatives and friends. The relatives
wear half-mourning, and the friends wear bands of white cloth
round their head. In the procession a man called Pi-Li-Sze-Yan
gives each person at the grave a piece of betel nut wrapped in
a leaf, and a piece of silver or a copper cash wrapped in cream-
coloured paper. The sons of the deceased walked immediately
in front of the coffin : but I have seen sons walking on either
side of the sedan-chair containing the tablet of their father. At
the funeral of Lo Poon-qua, one son was at the time residing in
Batavia, and mourning robes, intended for him, were bound to
the shafts of the sedan-chair, which was accompanied by the
other sons. This singular custom, which is adopted universally,
is intended not only to imply that the son though absent in
body is present in spirit, but to inform people in the streets
through which the procession passes that the deceased left other
sons than those present. All who were bound to the deceased by
the ties of consanguinity, are expected to walk in the procession.
Female relatives, however, unable to do so owing to contracted
feet, often content themselves with accompanying it for a short
distance. This is the case, for example, in Canton and its
immediate environs; but in the district of Sai-chu, which is
thirty English miles distant from that city, the women as well
as the men must walk to the grave. I once witnessed a funeral
procession from the slopes of the Sai-chu mountains. Before
me stretched a vast plain, extending from the base of the
mountains to the western branch of the Canton river, and
literally studded with towns and villages nestling amid umbra-
geous trees. The long funeral train took a quarter of an hour

XII.] THE FUNERAL PROCESSION. 303

to pass a given point. All who were present, of both sexes,
wore long white dresses, and the effect in the distance was very
impressive. Where the women take part in these processions,
the sexes are sometimes separated by a cordon of white cloth,
which is borne by two men. Women with small feet are per-
mitted to ride, not in sedan-chairs, but on the backs of female
servants or slaves. In Sinam, a large and populous town in the
district of Sam-shuee, I saw a procession in which numerous
ladies, attired in deep mourning, were riding on the backs of
female servants or slaves. Tbe bearers of the coftin went through
the streets of the town at a smart pace, and one of the
slaves, with a very stout old lady on her back, had great
difficulty in keeping up with it. At Pekin, Tien-tsin, and
other northern cities, especially in Tartary, I observed that
at funerals both males and females nearly all rode in covered
carts or on horseback. The longest train of wheeled carriages
I have ever seen in China or elsewhere, was at a funeral proces-
sion in Pekin. The catafalque was very large, and the bearers
were dressed in green, and had red plumes in their hats. Each
person present carried a small banner in his hand, and the
state umbrellas were also very numerous. The procession was
headed by trumpeters, who produced very grave and dismal sounds
from trumpets larger and longer than those used in the south of
China. The sons of the deceased walked on either side of the
sedan-chair, which contained the tablet ; the widow and daughters
rode in carts, immediately behind the coffin. In other parts of
the empire those only are allowed to ride wlio are of greater age
or higher rank than the deceased. In all cases those who ride
alight when they come in sight of the tomb, and walk the
remaining distance.

I have mentioned the Fong-Loo-Tchun-Yan, or scatterer of
paper money. To appease or dispel evil spirits, it is customary
in some parts to carry in the procession an idol of Hoi-Loo- Shan.
This personage was a distinguished minister of state in the
reign of Hin-yun, an Emperor who flourished towards the
close of the Chow dynasty. The latter was in the halut,
with his Empress, of making tours of inspection throughout
his northern provinces, and on one of these tours the Empress

304 CHINA. . [chap.

died. Upon an attempt being made to remove the coffin
containing her remains, it was found to be so heavy as to
be quite immovable. Hoi-Loo-Shan was, tlierefore, requested
by the Emperor to take charge of the coftin. On a second
attempt to remo\'e it, the task was readily accomplished. This
was attributed to the good influences of Hoi-Loo-Shan, whose
shining virtues the evil spirits were supposed to be unable to
resist. In certain parts of the Empire, the dispersion of evil
spirits is supposed to be accomplished by carrying at tlie head
of the funeral procession a man dressed as an avenger. His face
is covered with a fierce-looking mask, whicli in a funeral of
either the first, second, or third rank, is provided with three
eyes, one of which is placed in the centre of the forehead ; and in
that of a person of lower rank, with two eyes. On the arrival of
the procession, this dispeller of evil spirits strikes each corner of
the grave with a spear. AVealthy families erect a mat tent over
the grave, and the coffin is placed by the side of it on two
tressels. The female mourners, if any are present, kneel and
perform the kow-tow on the right side of the grave, and the male
mourners on the left. The coftin is then lowered by ropes
amidst their loud lamentations. These ropes are not removed
until the geomancer has assured himself, by means of a compass,
that the coffin lies in a straight position, and the utmost care is
taken to adjust it exactly to the bed prepared for it under his
directions. This functionary, or the priest, as the case may be,
then addresses a few words to the soul of the deceased, calling
upon it to remain with the corpse. The mourners kneel during
this address ; and at the close of it, the priest or geomancer
offers as an eucharistical sacrifice to the soul a quantity of paper
or mock money, paper carriages, and paper images of men-
servants and maid-servants, which are burned in order that they
may be conveyed to the world of spirits for its use. A her-
metically-sealed pot containing rice boiled on the day when the
corpse was placed in the coffin, is lowered into the grave as food
for the soul. Grains of unboiled rice are also scattered over
the coffin, and libations of tea poured upon the ground. Some-
times five effigies of cows, made of the roots of trees, are put
into the grave to avert evil influence from the north, south, east,

XII.] AT THE GRAVE. 305

and west, and from the centre of tlie earth. When the grave-
diggers begin to cast the earth into the gra've, the priest or
geomanccr lifts the cock wliich was carried in the procession,
and, standing at the foot of the grave, bends his body forward
three times. Each mourner, receiving the bird in turn, repeats
the ceremony. The soul cloth is then committed to the flames
of a sacred fire. The tablet bearing the name of the deceased is
next removed from its sedan-chair by the chief mourner, in
order that the dearest friend of the family may make a mark
on it with a vermilion pencil. After this he addresses a few
words of exhortation to the sons of the deceased, calling upon
them to live at all times as their father would have them live
were he present with them. They receive the exhortation
kneeling. Sometimes this ceremony is observed on the return
of the funeral party to the house of mourning, when the
sons put off their sackcloth robes and appear in tunics of
black broadcloth. The red mark on the tablet is made, I sup-
pose, in order that good fortune may attend the sons, and has
a particular reference to the blessings of wealth and posterity
After the tablet has been marked, every one present does homage
to it, the sons knocking their heads on the ground thrice, and
the more distant relatives twice. Poor families give a small fee
to a schoolmaster or graduate to mark the tablet and deliver
the exhortation.

The funeral procession returns to the house of mourning in
nearly the same order in which it set out. On arriving at the
door of the house, the mourners sometimes purify themselves by
stepping over a fire of straw. On entering they frequently wash
their eyes and sprinkle their faces three times with water in
which the leaves of the pomeloe tree have been boiled. In this
water of purification have been mingled the ashes of a piece of
paper on which a Taouist priest has written a mystic scroll.
The tablet of the deceased is then placed in a private chamber,
where it remains for one hundred days. The funeral party
then proceed to celebrate the feast of the dead. In the hall
in which this banquet is held, a portrait of the deceased is
placed on the wall, and various kinds of food are arranged
before it. This custom is not unlike the toscar or feast of

VOL. I. X

306 CHINA. [chap.

the dead wliicli is celebrated ou the death of an Abyssiuian.
On the third day after the interment, it is customary iu some
parts of the Empire for the sons or near relatives to revisit
the grave, worshipping and marching in procession three times
round it. I have seen this ceremony, -which is termed Yune-
Sha, or seeing that the grave is in order, in the graveyards of
the district or county of Heong-shan.

On the hundredth day of mourning, the services of the JSTam-
mo-loo are again called into requisition, and the tablet of the
deceased is taken from the private chamber and placed upon the
ancestral altar wliere it remains. On this occasion the jSTam
mo-loo addresses the soul of the deceased in the following
terms : — " The body which you once inhabited having been dead
one hundred days, it is now high time for you, together with
the tablet, to take your place on the ancestral altar." Homage
is jjaid to the tablet by all the relatives, and at the close the
distant relatives take off their mourning robes and cast them
into a tire kindled to consume them. On this day also the sons
shave their heads, bind up their queues with blue instead of with
white thread, and replace their white shoes by blue ones. At
a banquet prepared for the occasion, and at which dishes of
ducks' eggs, hard boiled, are noticeable among the many viands,
not only the relatives, but the immediate friends of the family
sit down. Offerings of food are of course jaresented to the
tablet of the deceased. On the first anniversary of the death,
offerings are again presented to the tablet, and all the bereaved
relatives perform the kow-tow before it. These ceremonies are
termed Tsaong. On the second anniversary, the tablet of the
deceased is again worsliipped, together with those of the other
ancestors of the family. Numerous offerings of paper clothes,
paper money, paper trunks, paper sedan-chairs, and paper man-
servants and maid-servants are cast into a sacred fire in order to
be conveyed to the ancestors. Buddhist or Taouist priests are
present to offer up masses for the repose of the departed soul.
The ceremonies of the second anniversary are termed Tai-
Tsaong.

At the end of the first month of the third year, the members
of the family substitute red visiting cards for the white •

XII.] PUTTING OFF I\IOURNING. 307

mourning cards they have hitherto used. They write on them
the character Tam, which signifies " grief not so bitter as
before." At the close of the seventh month of the third year,
the days of mourning are considered at an end. To mark this
event, a large banquet is prepared to which all the relatives
and friends of the family are invited. This ceremony is called
Tut-Fuk, or putting off mourning. T was present at a banquet
of this nature in 1871. It took place at the residence of a
mandarin named Woang Sing-leet, in the Kee-ha Street of the
old city of Canton. The feast was upon a most extensive
scale, and was attended by all the members and friends of the
family. Amongst the ancient Persians it was customary to mourn
for a father or mother during a period of three years, and on the
completion of the days of mourning a large banquet was given
by the members of the family. In all probability the banquet
which was given by Ahasuerus, King of Persia, to the great men
of his empire at the close of the third year of his reigu (Esther
i. 3), marked the completion of the period during v/hich he had
been mourning for his father. Although children in China mourn
for a deceased parent for two years and seven months, or three
years as they call it, they and their wives and children observe
each recurring anniversary of the death, repairing to the nearest
Buddhist monastery, and erecting an altar with a temporary
tablet bearing the name of the departed ; and engaging priests
to offer up prayers for the repose of his soul. At these celebra-
tions the members of the family are not in mourning, but
generally in robes of the most costly description. I have often
witnessed such ceremonies in the large monasteries of Canton,
but more frequently in that whicli is termed the Flowery Forest
monastery. Each officer, civil or military, is at liberty to close
his office on the anniversary of a parent's death, and on that of
the death of an emperor there is an entire suspension of business
by all officers of state. Such anniversaries, which are termed
Choy-Shon,, or prolonging old age, are regarded by those im-
mediately concerned as days of fasting.

I have already pointed out that the tomb of a Chinese
gentleman is remarkable for the extent of ground assigned to it.
The size of the plot varies from ninety English yards on each

X 2

308 CHINA. • [chap.

side of a given centre to nine yards. The former gives the
area of the ground belonging to a personage of the lirst rank ;
and the latter that of the grave of one below the seventh rank.
All tombs of these classes may be inclosed by walls, and the
rank of duke, or marquis, or earl, entitles the deceased to have
two watch-towers built in corners of the square. For a person
of any of the first five ranks only one watch-tower may be built.
Persons of the four remaining ranks may have two watchmen to
guard the tomb by night, but no watch-tower. Burial-places of
the classes I have described are endowed with lands or houses,
the rents from which go to keeping the tomb in repair and
paying the watchmen. The tombs of nobles, and of officers who
were of the first or second rank, may have an approach con-
structed, consisting of a stone pathway winding through an
avenue of stone figures,^ in many instances much larger than
life. Two of these represent ministers of state ; two, warriors
clad in armour ; the others, horses, camels, sheep, and tigers, a
pair of each kind. There is a lofty stone pillar on each side of
the entrance to the avenue. For the third rank the representa-
tions are of horses, tigers, and rams, a pair of each kind ; for the
fourth they are of horses and tigers ; for the fifth, of horses and
rams. The statuary is wrought in granite, and two pillars mark
the entrance. The stone tigers are supposed to prevent the
approach of a wild animal, which the Chinese call Mong-
Tsaong, and believe to feed upon the brains of corpses. The
rams, camels, and horses, may have a reference to the pastoral
pursuits of the Mongolians. In the northern and midland
provinces fir and cypress trees are commonly planted round
graves, to prevent the Mong-Tsaong from approaching. The
epitaph on the tombstone consists of the names of the deceased ;
the generation to which he belonged ; the date of his birth, and
of his death; his titles; the names of his sous and grandsons;
the name of the village in which he resided, and, in some
instances, a summary of his virtues. The slab, which is placed
in front of the tomlD of a duke, marquis, or earl, is ninety
Chinese inches high and thirty- six Chinese inches wide. Im-

^ Tlie custom of erecting stone figures of men and animals in front of the tombs
of men of rank, was, it is said, first practised in the Tsin dynasty about 249 B.C.

XII.] TOMBS. 309

mediately above the inscription there is engraved a representation
of the head of a reptile, thirty-two inches broad, called by the
Chinese, Lee. The stone, which is placed in a perpendicular
position, rests upon a figure of a tortoise thirty-eight inches
thick. The tombstone of a person of the first rank is live
inches lower than that of a nobleman, and two inches narrower,
the representation of the head of the Lee being also two inches
narrower. The tombstone of each descending class, is marked
by a lilce diminution of size. The carving on the tomb of a
gentleman of the second class is that of a Kee-lun — a fabulous
animal Avhich is said to appear when a sage is born. An animal
called Pelv-tsay is engraven upon the tombstone of a gentleman
of the third class, and an ancient Chinese character of a circular
form upon those of inferior ofticials. In the rear of the tomb-
stone is erected another stone with the titles and names of tlie
deceased, and those of his forefathers. It states which of his
father's sons he was, and whether he survived him. At some of
the villages at the base of the White Cloud mountains near
Canton, and at Nam-tiang, a village in the neighbourhood of
Whampoa, there are tombs such as I have described. When I
visited the latter place, my servants were warned against touch-
ing any of the stone figures forming the avenue. I was told
that instances had occurred of persons having become seriously
ill in consequence of having done so. One of the most interest-
ing tombs of tliis description is near tlie east gate of Canton.
It contains the remains of a distinguished Tartar minister of
state, who died at Canton, and was erected at the command of
tlie Emperor Shun-chi, A.p. 1G44. A translation of the in-
scription upon the tomb appeared in the Friend of China
(August 24, 18G1), and I give the following extracts: —

" The Emperor Shun-Chi receiving the behest of heaven says.
The glory of a kingdom is to increase in wealth and to reward
the meritorious. Of all the meritorious, those who aid in build-
ing up a kingdom should be cherished and exalted, for with
prospect of reward others are induced to act nobly in behalf of
government. This has been the practice both in ancient and
modern times, and it is just."

******

310 CHINA. ■ [ciur.

[After alluding to the services ol the deceased, the Emperor
proceeds to say : — ]

" You, Pan-Chee-Foo, have been the emperor's arms and legs —
exceedingly useful — day and niglit have you been faithful. And
you, Pan-Chee-Foo's wife, ruling well your family, have, also,
been of great aid to your husband ; the Emperor manifests his
will regarding you also. When Pan-Chee-Foo v/as major-general,
you assisted him to an extent which raised you in excellence far
above all other women, and, therefore, shall you be rewarded
according to your merits. I, therefore, confer on you a title of
the first degree in commemoration of the labour you bestowed
and the aid you gave your husband. I confer tliis imparalleled
reward as well also, for your chastity and obedience ; and,
although you are dead, yet your spirit is cognizant of the honour
bestowed, and you will continue to remember these great
rewards."

[The inscription concludes with the following apostrophe :— ]

" You truly were of a noble nature and true heart. While an
ofl&cer you were reverential and diligent. Suddenly you died.
Alas, it grieved me sore, and I grant an additional worship.
Your soul is not without understanding, may it fully enjoy this.
Beyond the door, only your name is great. You have fought
bravely. For many years you protected the boundary. But
suddenly your body rests in the water and mud. I give you
these offerings to show I lament your death. May you live in
a city (be prosperous). May your sons return to us."

Of tombs of this class, the most interesting, in point of
historical associations, which I visited, is near Haugchow. It
contains the remains of one N'gock Pang-koee, a general who
flourished during the reign of Fy-chung, a sovereign of the Tai-
Soong dynasty. It appears that Fy-chung in fighting the
invading army of a neighbouring sovereign was taken prisoner,
and that his queen tlien offered great rewards to any of the
officers of his army who should accomplish the overthrovv^ of the
enemy, and the restoration of her husband to his throne. The
task was undertaken by N'gock Pang-koee, a soldier of distinc-
tion. The success of the expedition, however, was not what the
prime minister of the captive sovereign desired. He was anxious

XII.] FAMOUS TOMBS. 3ll

to bring about the death of the L^tter_. iu the hope of occupying
the throne. His wife, like another Jezebel, stimulated her
husband's ambition, and plotted to procure the execution of
N'gock Pang-koee by a false accusation. The prime minister,
who was called Chun Poee, accordingly represented to the queen
that the general was not only indifferent to the restoration of his
sovereign, but was oppressing the soldiers under his command in
a variety of ways — that lie gave them little or no food, kept
back their pay, and took care not to lead them against the enemy,
who were daily laughing at his apparent imbecility. On these
representations the cpieeu determined on the execution of N'gock
Pang-kooee. The general was accordingly recalled, and Chun Poee,
fearing lest he should obtain an interview with the queen,
secretly issued an order for his decapitation. This was done
witliout her majesty's authority, but in her name, and the order
was at once carried out when the general reached Hangchow.
The elders of the city, who suspected underhand dealing,
memorialized the queen. The case w^as investigated, and, the
guilt of the prime minister and his wife and two others having
been established, they were tin-own into prison, where, two
months later, Chun Poee sickened and died. Two sons of
N'gock Pang-koee who had proved themselves as brave as their
unfortunate father, were then appointed to the command, and
succeeded before long in defeating the enemy, and restoring
Fy-chung to his throne. On liis restoration, the wife of Chun
Poee was strangled, and the two male prisoners were executed
by a process of slow torture. The wives and children and other
near relatives of the male jirisoners were also put to death, as
well as the children and nearest relatives of the wife of Chun
Poee. Posthumous honours were conferred on N'jjock Pansi-
koeC; and the tomb which now stnnds in his memory was erected
It is in the form of a large circular mound, and is built of brick.
In front of it, beside a stone altar and a large tombstone
bearing an inscription, is a monumental gateway of three arches.
The statues forming the approach represent two ministers of
state, four w^arriors, two horses, two rams, and two kee-luns.
Besides these there are four figures in a kneeling posture, as
if in the act of asking forgiveness. These represent the four

312 CHINA. • [cuAP.

murderers of N'gock Pang-koee, with their hands bound with
cords behind their backs, and on each figure the name of the
criminal is inscribed. The area in which the tomb stands is
inclosed by a wall. The upper part of the entrance door of the
area is very graceful, and before it is a small pond of water
encircled by a wall, on the top of which is a stone balustrade.
A neat monumental bridge of one arch spans the pond. Near
this bridge stands a wall in which are inserted four slabs, each
engraven with a Chinese character. The characters, which are
Ching, Cliung, Pow, and Kwok, signify allegiance and attach-
ment to the throne. These characters are said to have been
tattooed upon the back of N'gock Pang-koee by his mother,
when he was a child. The tomb remained intact until the close
of the eighteenth century, when a descendant of the wicked
prime minister, having taken high literary honours at Pekin,
memorialized the Emperor Kien-lung Wong to grant him, as an
especial favour, the removal of the figures which commemorated
the infamy of his ancestors. The Emperor acceded, but the
step gave great offence to the people, and he ordered the figures
to be replaced. They continued uninjured until the capture of
Hangchow by the insurgents, when they Avere more or less
mutilated by these iconoclasts. They were, however, restored by
the provincial judge as a monument which, he declared, ought
to stand for ever. It is usual for visitors, in some instances to
stone,^ and in others to flog with sticks the iron figures which
represent the vile persons by whose false accusations the hero
was put to death. This, however, is a minor offence against
taste compared with another practice by which the Chinese
are accustomed to express their hatred of the crime thus com-
memorated. Near the tomb stands a temple in honour of the
unfortunate soldier, whom the Chinese of course deified. It was

^ The observance of this siDguhir eustom recalls to my mind a parallel custom
mentioned by Robinson in his Travels in Palestine and Syria. That interesting
writer, in speaking of the sepulchre, or rather mausoleum, of Absolom in the valley
of Jehoshaphat, says that, to the tomb in question, there is no "perceptible
entrance, but the upper story has been opened by violence. Into this aperture
Mahommedans, Jews, and Christians, men and women, old and young, are in the
habit of throwing stones as they pass, meaning to testify their abhorrence of the
rebellion of a son against his father."

XII.] MAUSOLEUMS. 313

destroyed by the rebels, but was restored by Imperial grants of
money.

In tlie prefecture of Hangchow I saw several graves, above
each of which was i)laced a stone pillar resembling a pagoda in
form ; and on the banks of a small lake near the city I saw a
domed sepulchre, ■which was open at the sides. It contained the
remains of a member of the Soo family. On the granite pillars
which supported a richly ornamented roof were inscribed prayers
for the hastening of the wandering soul of the departed one to
Elysium. In many of tlie central provinces, but especially in
the low districts of these provinces, the dead are deposited in
mausoleums. The coffins are not placed below the earth, but
are made to rest on trestles, or, in some instances, upon the
ground. Buildings of this kind differ much in shape. In some
instances, they resemble the ordinary brick huts which in
English meadows are erected for the service of cattle. One
mausoleum which I visited, in the province of Kiang-soo, w^as
erected in the centre of a courtyard of seventy feet by thirty,
it was built of bricks, and consisted of three large chambers,
each of wdiich was above ground and approached by an arched
door. As the bricks by which the entrance had at one time
been blocked up had been thrown down, I was able to inspect
these chambers, and in each of them I found coffins resting
upon trestles. It was evident that either thieves or rebels had
broken open the coffins in the hope of finding valuable ornaments
and dresses. In the silk districts of the prefecture I observed
several garden tombs. They were, as a rule, in sequestered
spots, under wide spreading trees or in mulberry plantations.
Each tomb was a vast mound of earth in the form of a half-
circle. In the southern provinces of the Empire the tombs
are not inclosed by boundary walls, nor are they surrounded by
trees. They consist of a pyramidal mound of stone, or asphalte,
or earth inclosed by a w^ all which resembles in form the Greek
letter 12. In front of a tomb of a man of rank two granite
pillars, surmounted by figures of kee-luns, are erected. There
are also the customary slabs for inscriptions. Long red flag-
poles are in some instances erected in front of the tomb, and on
extraordinary occasions, banners bearing the names and titles of

314 CHINA. ' [chap.

the deceased are hoisted. The poles differ somewhat in form
according to the rank of the deceased.

In 1865, I had an opportunity of visiting the imperial tomhs
near Chan-ping Chow, the city in the prisons of which certain
English officers and Mr. Bowlhy, the correspondent of the Times,
were confined during the last war, after their capture under a flag
of truce ; and where they died of the cruel treatment to which
they were subjected. The extensive valley in which these
imperial tombs are contained, is approached by a large monu-
mental arch of three gateways, and by an avenue of stone
figures of colossal size. The figures, whicii are placed at a
distance from each other of several yards, are four lions, four
elephants, four camels, four horses, four warriors, and eight
ministers of state. They are distributed so that where there
are four of a kind, there are two on each side. Each tomb
consists of a vast pyramidal mound of earth seventy English
feet high, inclosed at the base by a wall which resembles in
form the Greek letter Omega. The mound is thickly planted
with cypress-trees. In front there is a large temple, whose lofty
and vaulted roof is covered with yellow tiles, and supported by
tall red pillars. In a niche, there is a tablet bearing the name
of the deceased Emperor, and before it an altar on which at
stated periods the customary offerings are placed. The tomb at
Nankin which contains tlie remains of an emperor of the Ming
dynasty is precisely similar to these. Tlie interior of these
vaults is very tastefully decorated. It was usual in former
times for the imperial family to place figures of male and
female servants in them. This custom is alluded to by
Confucius in his writings as absurd. The remark of the sage,
however, was misinterpreted, and from about 500 B.C. until the
reign of the emperor Kien-lung, who abdicated the throne in
1795, it was customary to place not the effigies, but the servants
themselves — a man and his wife — in an emperor's tomb. Two
poor people were easily prevailed upon to become the attendants
on departed royalty, in consideration of a sum of money settled
on their families. Their chief duties were to burn incense, and
to light tapers morning and evening at the head — or foot — of
the coffin.

XII.] IMPERIAL TOMCS. 315

At Clie{3foo, ill the province of Shantung, I visited the
cemetery of a prince who was a member either of the former or
of the present dynasty. The cemetery was inclosed by four
walls, and the tomb was approaclied liy an avenue of cedar-trees
and stone figures. On each side of the avenue were several
smaller tombs, containing the remains of descendants of the
prince, and surrounded by clumps of trees.

Among what are known as the ancient royal tombs, there are
some which are said to be of extraordinary antiquity. The most
ancient of these is that of the Fok-lii, who reigned B.C. 2852.
The tomb is in the district of W3^-ning, in the province of Ho-
nam. The second is that of Mi-too, a sovereign upon whom,
so say the Chinese, devolved the duty of repairing the vault of
heaven. It is in the district of Chu-ching in the province of
Shansi. Ten of these tombs belong to the third millennial period
before Christ, and seven belong to the second. There are thirty-
seven of these ancient royal tombs, the thirty-seventh being that
of Hien-tsung, who reigned a.d." 1488. They are to be found
chiefly in the provinces of Shansi and Honam, and worship is
rendered at them by the officials of the districts in which they
are respectively situated, at the equinoxes, on the accession of
an heir apparent to the throne of China, on his marriage, on the
celebration of each of his natal anniversaries which marks
the completion of a decade of years. At such periods, a sheep
and a pig are sacrificed before each of the tombs, except those
of two emperors of the Kura dynasty, at which the sacrifice is
a cow.

In the course of this chapter I have observed that geomancers
are employed to choose lucky sites for tombs. Should the
geomancer fail to find a site before the time appointed for the
burinl, it is usual for the mourners to convey their dead with
funeral pomp and parade to a puldic building called " Ivoong-
Tsoi-Chong." Such an edifice consists of several apartments,
houses, or cottages, in each of which one or more coffins are
placed, waiting for the indispensable geomancer. In each
apartment there is an altar, with a tablet bearing the name of
the deceased, before which are placed incense burners, candle-
sticks, and cups containing tea. In Canton the remains of

31G CHINA. [chap.

officials, merchants, or travellers "svlio have come from other
parts of the emph^e, and died during their residence in the city,
are frequently deposited in this building. To hury them at
once at Canton would he to deprive them of that worship from
the family which is considered essential to the happiness of a
departed soul.^ Formerly it was, 1 believe, customary for the
Chinese, when the geomancers failed in finding a lucky site, to
burn the coffin containing the body, Now, however, coffins are
sometimes allowed to remain thirty, forty, or even fifty years
in the Koong-Tsoi-Chong, either because a lucky site has not
been found, or because funds are wanting to celebrate the
obsequies. In the latter case, houses and lands are sometimes
mortgaged or sold ; and there are not a few instances on record
of men selling themselves as slaves to obtain the means of duly
celebrating the obsequies of a father or mother. An entrance fee
and a monthly rent are paid by those who place their dead in the
Koong-Tsoi-Chong, the sums paid varying according to the wealth
or rank of the family. Should no memlier of the family leaving
the body visit it for three years, or should no rent be paid during
that period, the body is buried under the sanction and, I believe,
at the expense of tlie local government. At Canton, near
the north gate, there is a Koong-Tsoi-Chong for the natives of
the province of Chit-Kong who have died in the city ; and near
the north-east gate there is one inclosed by a high circular waW,
and approached by folding doors, for the natives of the province
of Kiangsi, In addition to rows or streets of private cells for
the dead, it has three large public apartments which, when I
last visited it, were filled with coffins awaiting removal. To
foreigners, the most interesting institution, however, of this
nature is the Wing-Shing-Tsze, which is situated at a distance

^ When travelling in Mongolia I met several Chinese officials returning to
their respective homes in China Proper, from stations at which they had been
serving for several years. In each case the official was attended not only by
secretaries, clerks, servants, and slaves, but by all the members of his family.
Sometimes the mules and asses, used as beasts of burden, were j'oked to biers,
on which lay the remains of a deceased relative. These trains reminded me of
that portion of Joseph's history, when he went up from Egypt to Canaan to bury
his father, and when there went with him "all the house of Joseph, and his
brethren, and his father's house."

XII.] TEMPORARY RECEPTACLES FOR THE DEAD. 317

of one English mile beyond the east gate of Canton. It is laid
out, like those which I have been describing, in the form of a
small city, and is not inaptly termed " the city of the dead."
Two of its sides are flanked by a lofty wall, loopholed for
musketry. This precaution is taken against robbers, wdio are
said sometimes to bind themselves by an oath to remove^the
l)ody of a person who has bequeathed wealth to his relatives,
and to hold it until a ransom has been paid. When a suspicion
of this is entertahied by the relatives of the deceased, a few
armed men are hired to keep watch by night. In this place
it was, and may still be, customary to keep a white cock, in
order that the spirits of the dead when disposed to wander
abroad might be recalled by its crowing. In the courtyard
there is a pond, the east bank of which, lined with trees and
shrubs, affords shelter, it is said, to no fewer than one thousand
" pagoda birds " or herons, which are held sacred to Buddha,
Attached to this same city of the dead there is a garden with a
large garden house. To this bower, persons, when visiting their
dead, resort to dine, and I have been present at many pic-nic
parties in it. In each city of the dead two or three priests of
the sect of Buddha reside, whose duty it is to offer occasional
masses for the repose of their souls. When on a visit to the
city of Chinkiang, I observed that in the absence of a Koong-
Tsoi-Chong, the corridors of the temple in honour of Shing
Wong were occupied by coffins containing dead bodies, which,
I was told, were those of men who had come to Chinkiang from
other parts of the Empire for the purposes of trade.

Where such institutions are not provided, the Chinese deposit
their dead on or near the sides of hills, which are used as ceme-
teries, or on the open plains, and, in some instances, by the
wayside. Walking once along a road in the immediate vicinity of
Eching, I observed several coffins by the wayside. Behind one of
these, which from its size evidently contained the remains of one
who in his lifetime had been accustomed to receive the good things
of this world, three poor women were sheltering themselves from
the cold north wind. Coffins are also deposited on the banks of
rivers, creeks, and canals. On one occasion I saw a very large
one on the banks of the Poyang lake. The coffins are in most

318 CriIXA. ■ [chap.

instances uncovered ; sometimes they are covered with matting,
tin, or straw, sometimes with stones. At Kilung in Formosa
I saw some which were covered with chunam or asphalte. At
Xankin I observed coffins exj^osed in great numbers, and two or
three of them were lying near the west gate of the city, where
there is a large market for the sale of reeds. At AVoo-see Hien
I found one exposed in the middle of a market which is held
daily for the sale of timber at the west gate. At "Woo-chang,
on the banks of the Grand Canal, I found more coffins exposed
in proportion to the size of the city than in any other in the
Empire. The unburied coffins were so numerous not only in
the city itself, but throughout the district of which it is the
capital, that I naturally inferred that few or no interments take
place in that portion of China. It is not too much to say that
from the city of Woo-chang to the market town of Ping-wong-
chun, and for miles beyond, the banks of the Grand Canal were
more or less covered with coffins. This reluctance to bury their
dead is, I believe, to be attributed to the fact that the surround-
ing country is very flat, and that flat lands are by the geomancers
deemed unlucky for tombs. "When the coffins decay and fall to
pieces, the bones of the dead are gathered together, put into
bags, and cast into the Avater. At Koon-yam-moon, a market
town near Nankin, I saw a coffin at the door of the house in
which the family of the deceased person were residing. At the
cities of Kiu-kiang, Chin-kiang, and at the town of Hankow I also
saw coffins at the doors of houses in the less frequented streets.
This singular custom, I was informed, arises not so much from
a difficulty in finding lucky sites of interment, or funds for the
fmieral expenses, as from a reluctance to remove their dead out
of their sight. This sentiment prevails to a still greater extent
at Yang-chow Foo, where it is not unusual for tradespeople and
others to keep their dead ivithin their dwellings. Such persons
often place near the coffin, on each occasion of their sitting down
to table, a portion of tlieir own meal. At Canton, I know only
of two or three instances of this nature occurring. An old silk
merchant, with whom I was very well acquainted, kept the
remains of a wife whom he had dearly loved in his house for
several years; and a gentleman naroed Chay Yow-yan, who was

xn.] BABY TOWERS. 319

also a personal friend of mine, and who resided in Tai-sliap-poo,
kept the remains of his father in his house for some time. A
family named Ho, whom I knew, kept for many years the
remains of their father in their house. In this case the step
proved to tlieir advantage, as the landlord of the house, although
desirous of ejecting the inmates in consequence of tlieir inability
to pay him any rent, was unable to do this, so long as the corpse
remained in the house.

In many of the cemeteries of the northern and midland
counties, receptacles for human bones are erected. I saw
them at Shanghai, Kingpo, Nan-kang Foo, Ta-koo-tang, and
Tan-yang. As the bodies of infants are not unfrequently
deposited there, they are sometimes called baby towers. They
are built of bricks and mortar, and vary in shape : some are in
the form of towers ; others are like pagodas. The buildings at
Ta-koo-tang, Kam-poo-sheng, and Tan-yang reminded me of
Sandys' description of the Aceldama, or field of blood, in the
vicinity of Jerusalem.

" On the south side of this valley, near wliere it meeteth with
the valley of Jehosliaphat, mounted a good height on the side
of the mountain, is Aceldama, or Field of Blood, purchased
with the restored reward of treason for a burial place for
strangers. In the midst whereof a large square room was made
by the mother of Constantine ; the south side walled with the
natural rock, flat at the top, and equal with the upper level, out
of which ariseth certain little cupolas open in the midst to
let down the dead bodies. Through them we might see the
bottom all covered with bones, and certain corpses but newly let
down."

At Ivilung, Tam-sin, and other ports on the coast of Formosa,
each ossuary is in the form of a square hut or shed one side of
which is unenclosed. In an ossuary at Kilung I saw not less
than one hundred human skulls. At Canton the corpses of
infants are generally wrapped in matting or cloth and cast upon
the sides of the hills, especially upon the hill near the East
gate of the city, which, being the cemetery for malefactors and
others, is called the hill for 10,000 men's bones. Here they are
devoured by dogs. In some instances they are cast into the

320 CHINA. [chap.

water. In a large cemetery, however, at Pecliung, near Canton,
I observed a plot of ground which had been purchased by a
wealthy family named Yeh^ and set apart for the interment of
infants. In cemeteries at Canton, it is customary for the gentry
to employ men to gather human bones together for interment.
Over each plot of ground in which the bones are buried, it is
usual to erect a low conical mound of asphalte or chunam, in
front of which is a small slab recording- the number of bones
which lie buried beneath.

In the spring time, particularly in the third month of each
3'ear, it is customary for the male members of Chinese families
to visit the family tombs to pay homage to their ancestors.
They present offerings of boiled pork, foAvls, ducks, geese, and
tea; suits of paper clothes, paper money, paper men servants
and maid servants are also burned. All such sacrifices and
offerings are, I believe, regulated by a law established in
the first year — a.d. 1723 — of the Emperor Yung-ching. The
singular custom of presenting offerings of food to the dead
appears to have been observed from the earliest times by all
heathen nations ; and we read of the children of Israel that,
led away by their example, " They joined themselves unto Baal-
peor, and ate the sacrifices of the dead" (Ps. cvi. 28). In the
" Holy State" of Thomas Fuller, which was published in 1663,
it is stated that " There was a custom in Africa to bring pulse,
bread, and wines to the monuments of dead saints, wherein
Monica (the mother of St. Augustine) was as forward as any.
But being better instructed that this custom was of heathenish
parentage, and that religion was not so poor as to borrow rites
from paganism, she instantly left off that ceremony, and as for
piety's sake she had done it thus long, so for piety's sake she
would do so no longer." Fuller goes on to observe, " How
many folks nowadays, whose best argument is use, would
have flown in their faces who should stop them in the full
career of an ancient custom."

The Chinese also pour libations of wine in honour of the
departed dead ; and the whole ceremony is brought to a close
by a salvo of fire crackers. Worship is not confined to private
family tombs, but whole clans resort to the tombs of their

XII.] ANCESTRAL WORSHIP. 321

founders. On reaching the tomb of their great forefather, they
place immediately in front of it the insignia of the rank which
he held ; and, having first worshipped the genii of the mountain,
they worship the souls of their forefathers. While they are
thus engaged, musicians enliven the proceedings by playing
various Chinese airs upon shrill pipes. After worsliip, they
sometimes dine on the ground by tens al frcf^co. Sometimes
the votaries return for dinner to the ancestral hall of the clan.
At this banquet, which is called Pi-moo, or finishing the worship,
three dishes are served up : the first consists of pork patties,
cabbages, and crabs ; the second of roast geese, stuffed with
cocoa, and the third of baked rice. Similar dishes are presented
to the souls of their ancestors. Large quantities of paper
money are also burned before the ancestral tablets. The ex-
penses are defrayed by funds arising from the lands by which
ancestral halls are endowed.

To repair and ornament the tombs of their ancestors is
considered by the Chinese an act of great piety. Devices
made of white and red paper are used by them in decorating
their tombs, for Chinese families are not permitted to scatter
flowers over the graves of their dead. This is a privilege confined
to members of the royal family, who, as a rule, use artificial
flowers. These are manufactured in China, especially by the
inhabitants of Amoy, with much neatness and skill. The
Jews, as we learn from certain passages in the twenty-third
chapter of St. Matthew's gospel, were in the habit of embel-
lishing the tombs in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, and it
is singular that the season selected by them for this purpose
M'as the return of spring, a little before the celebration of
the Passover.

On the ninth day of the ninth month, the Chinese again
repair to the hills for the purpose of worshipping at their family
tombs. This duty, however, is not so strictly observed as it is
during the third month of the year. To worship at the tombs
at the appointed seasons is apparently imperative upon men of
all classes of society ; and in order that families unable through
poverty to erect tombstones for their dead, and perhaps ignorant
of the precise spot where they have laid their remains, may have

VOL. I. Y

322 CHINA. [chap.

no excuse to neglect so important a duty, there stands within
the precincts of each cemetery a large stone tablet, with the
inscription Koo-Mow-Tsing-Tsi, directing all who cannot find
the tombs of their fathers to worship before this stone.^ The
prayers to their ancestors are such as those which Christian
men present to the God of all good, when they ask that they
may receive grace to preserve them safe in the midst of life's
temptations, and to prepare them for eternal glory. It is sad
to think that the Chinese should be so blinded by the god
of this world as to suppose they can obtain from the creature
what emanates from the Creator alone. It is usual for them, at
any time of perplexity and trouble, to repair to the tombs and
consult the spirits of their ancestors.

Only the males of Chinese families worship the tombs through-
out the third month, and again on the 9th day of the 9th month
of each year ; but during the first few weeks after a burial,
female relatives visit the tomb,woi shipping and be%vailing the
departed dead.- I have several times seen widows weeping by
the graves of their husbands ; often relating their troubles to the
dead, and seeking consolation from them. The affecting custom
o women weeping by the graves of their deceased relatives is, as
might be expected, not confined to China. In Palestine groups
of women may be seen daily at the tombs, scattering flowers
over them, and shedding the unaffected tears of heartfelt sorrow.
When ]\Iary rose quickly to meet the. Eedeemer, of whose
coming she had been privately informed, it was natural for the
friends, who were gathered together, to conclude that she was
going " unto the grave to weep there."

All Chinese sepulchres are extra-mural, and interments are not
permitted within the walls of a Chinese city or town. To this
rule, however, there are evidently exceptions, as I saw graves
witliin the walls of Ningpo and Kankin. The practice of bury-
ing the dead beyond the precincts of cities and towns, — which

^ Such worship is regarded as ef|uivalent to that paid to the souls of tlie
departed at their tombs. At the base of the slab there is a small stone altar at
which to present the customary offerings.

^ On the two great annual occasions of ancestral worship it is not customary
to weep and lament. The inhabitants of the province of Honam, however, are
an exception.

xii.] FUNERALS OF L)ISTINGUrSIl?:D OFFICIALS. •}2;5

has only during the past few years been partially put in force in
Ch'eat Britain — lias apparently been always observed by the
inhabitants of all ancient countries. The Athenians buried in
the ' Ceramicus ; ' the Eomans in the fields and gardens near
the ' Via Appia,' ' Flaminia,' ' Latina,' and other highways, and
in places set apart without the gate.

" Quorum Flaiuiuia tegitur ciuis atque Latina."

The Chinese are not allowed to carry a corpse within the
gates of their waUed cities. Should a person who resides
within the walls, die from home, his relatives are not permitted
to take the corpse, even though it is inclosed in a coffin, within
.the walls. In the case of a very distinguished civil or military
officer dying at his post of duty, the Emperor sometimes, as a
mark of very great honour, issues a decree that the body of the
departed shall be carried in mournful procession through the
principal streets of the capital city of the district, prefecture, or
province of which he was a native. The mournful cavalcade
enters the city by the east gate, and leaves it by the west. In
1859, I saw the remains of a distinguished civil officer, named
Laoug Tong-san, who was a native of the western suburb of
Canton, and who had died while in the discharge of his duties,
borne thus through the city. On its arrival at the east gate, the
procession was joined by all the officers of the city, civil and
military, who accompanied it until it had passed into the western
suburb. In 1868, I witnessed a similar ceremony. The funeral
v/as that of a high mandarin named Lok Pang-chaong, a native
of Fat-Shan in the province of Kwang-tung. For many years
governor general of the large and wealthy province of Sze-chuen,
he had given many decided proofs of his private virtues and of
abilities as a statesman. Dying at his seat of government, his
remains were carried in mournful triumph through the city of
Canton, the capital of the province of which he was a native.
To judge from the solemnity which pervaded the crowds of
witnesses, it would appear that in their estimation no greater
honour could be paid to the dead. A similar honour is paid to
all officials who die in active service at Pekin, the corpse being

Y 2

324 CHINA. [chap.

removed to its native place at the expense of the Imperial
government. A similar mark of reverence is paid to the wife
of an official should she have accompanied her husband to
Pekin and died there.

The Chinese are not allowed to receive a corpse into their
houses. When a man dies from home his remains are
placed in a coffin, and borne at once to the grave, or to a
Koong-Tsoi-Chong. Many instances of the operation of this
rule came under my notice. The most melancholy occurred
at Canton in 1870. A fire having taken place in the rear of
the foreign settlement, several native fire brigades were speedily
on the spot. One of them took up a position on a bridge
spanning a creek which flowed round the block of buildings
which the fire had attacked. The wooden beams of the bridge,
which was an old one, suddenly gave w^ay, and not less than one
hundred persons fell into the water. Seventeen were drowned.
As each body was recovered from the water on the following
morning it w-as immediately dressed in grave clothes, inclosed
in a coffin, and conveyed at once by sorrowing relatives to its
last resting-place.

In the common cemeteries, which in China are very large,
each family has often its own piece of ground, within which
the bones of its ancestors remain undisturbed. In other in-
stances, however, a Chinese family buries its dead in different
cemeteries. This custom has prevailed more or less in some
parts of the Empire since the Tsin dynasty, B.C. 249, and owes
its origin in a great measure to the fact that the geomancers not
unfrequently recommend new ground for a new interment,
alleging that the spot they have discovered is even luckier than
the family grave. In the south of China the remains of
husband and wdfe are buried in the same tomb, if the husband
is the first to die. Should the wife die first, the remains of the
husband are not deposited by her side, as this would be regarded as
most unlucky. Most Chinese cemeteries have a very neglected
appearance, more especially in the south of China. Many of
the tombs are in a most dilapidated state, though the law makes
it obligatory on the Chinese to keep the tombs of their ances-
tors in excellent order. So sacred are tombs held by Chinese

XII.] THE DESECRATION OF TOMBS. 325

law, that a desecration of them is regarded as a most lieiuoiis
offence. A person caught reopening a grave would, if he had un-
covered the coftin, incur the punishment of one hundred blows,
and transportation for three years to a place distant three thousand
li from his home. Should he have removed the corpse, nothing
would await him but death by strangulation. One who opens
a tomb, which in consequence of storms or the lapse of time
has become very dilapidated, is punislied with ninety blows
and exiled for two years and a half; and if he has removed the
bones death by strangulation is the sentence. People wdio steal
the bricks or stones of a tomb are punished in proportion to the
value of the bricks or stones. That Chinese grave-diggers are
occasionally guilty of disturbing the dead is clear from an
edict which the Chief Justice or Provincial Judge of Kwang-
tung issued in the month of June, 1871. He had received in-
formation to the effect that the grave-diggers, vulgarly known
as hill dogs, had of late exhumed several corpses, and re-
sold the graves from which they were taken, and he offered to
reward liberally any person or persons who would bring grave-
diggers guilty of such sacrilegious acts to justice. He warned
the grave-diggers that any one of them taken in the act of
removing a corpse, or of opening a grave for this purpose, would
suffer death either by decapitation or strangulation ; and that
selling the head-stones of graves which have long since been
neglected and forgotten, would be visited with the very worst
form of imprisonment. Any one who injures a coffin in the
pursuit of rats, foxes, or wild cats which have burrowed into
graves — a circumstance by no means uncommon in the north of
China — is punished with eighty blows and sent into exile for two
years. Should he use tire for the purpose of smoking the foxes
or wild cats out of their holes, and destroy the corpse, he is
liable to one hundred blows and to be sent into exile for three
years. Should a farmer level a tomb on the estate which he
farms, he w^ould be punished with one hundred blows and have
to rebuild the tomb or tombs at his own expense. Should any one
covet the graves of another family as being in a propitious situation,
and prevail upon the grave-digger to remove the remains already
there, he and tlie grave-digger would be put to death by

326 CHINA. [(^iiAP.

strangulation. A man who, regarding a tomb as lucky, secretly
buries tlie dead body of his father in it, is liable to be punished
with one hundred blows and exiled for life to a place distant
three thousand li from ' his native place. A man secretly
burying a member of his family in a plot of ground set apart
as the private cemetery of another familj^, but in which no
l)ody has yet been laid, is punished with ninety blows and
transported for two and a half years. People who, in conse-
quence of poverty, are unable to x^urchase ground for their
dead, and w^ho bury them in the private cemeteries of others,
incur a punishment of eighty blows, and aie to remove their
dead. If a purchaser of a plot of ground for a burial-place
discovers that corpses have already been interred there, he is
required to report the circumstance at once to the district ruler,
who examines into the matter, and gives the necessary orders
for the removal of the dead. Should he remove the dead on
his own responsibility, he would be punished with eighty blows
and sent into exile for one year. When the Chinese suffer
from drought or any other epidemic, they often attribute the
visitation to devils or evil spirits coming from a certain tomb or
tombs. Persons, therefore, occasionally conspire to destroy a
tomb. Such an offence is dealt with very severely. The law
directs that the leader of the gang shall be strangled, that the
second and third of his accomplices shall be transported for life,
and that each of the other offenders shall receive one hundred
blows and be transported for three years. A son or grandson,
nephew or granclnephew, who is caught in the act of opening
the graves of his ancestors for the purpose of despoiling the
corpses of valuable ornaments, is punished with one hundred
blows and banislied for life three thousand li from his native
place. Should he have succeeded in opening the coffin, the
sentence is decapitation. To conclude, should a son or grand-
son, a nephew or grandnephew, exhume the remains of his
ancestors for the purpose of selling the ground in which they
have been interred, he would be decapitated, and the pur-
chaser of the ground would be punished with eighty blows and
mulcted in a sum of money equal to that which he had given
for the rn'ound.

xii.J EXHUMATION. 327

It is customary for descendants to exhume the bodies of
their ancestors, if they have reason to think that they are
resting in unlucky tombs. Shoukl the good fortune or the
good health of a family suddenly change^ it is not unusual
for them to apply to a geomancer with the view of ascer-
taining the cause. That worthy sometimes discovers that the
ancestors are resting in unlucky tombs, and their remains are
at once exhumed for re-interment in more propitious spots.
Should the grave-diggers succeed in finding all the bones of the
skeleton, they are rewarded with a liberal fee. The bones are
arranged in order on a board, and washed with warm water, in
which, to render it aromatic, the leaved of a cypress, cedar, or
pomeloe tree have been boiled. They are then marked with a
vermilion pencil, and placed in a cinerary urn, which is
deposited in the tomb selected as lucky. Sometimes the urn is
taken home by the relatives, and either placed in a private
chamber, or lodged in the grounds round the dwelling-house.
Sometimes it is left for a time in the cemetery. Passing once
through a large cemetery beyond the north gate of Canton, 1 saw
several persons standing by the side of a grave. They were de-
scendants of one Laong Chun-ping, who had died many years ago,
and were removing the remains of their ancestor, it being supposed
that the tomb which contained them was unlucky. A short
distance from the grave, a fire was burning in a portable grate,
on which was a pan containing water in which leaves of the
cypress-tree were being boiled. Anxious to witness the usual
ceremonies upon the exhumation of a body, I remained l)y the
side of the grave, and was not a little surprised at the accuracy
with which the grave-diggers arranged the bones belonging to
the skeleton. These men acquire in this way a most perfect
knowledge of the anatomy of the human frame. After each of
the descendants of Laong Chun-ping had done obeisance to
them, the bones were carefully washed by the grave-digger,
separately marked with a vermilion pencil, placed in a cinerary
uin, and conveyed away for interment. The descendants of
tlie deceased were in dark dresses, and, as they moved with
the ashes of the dead towards the new tomb which had been
prepared fur them, the nearest of kin carried in his hand

328 CHINA. [CH. xii.

a streamer — the call clotli — to induce the sphit which had
remained with the corpse to accompany the exhumed bones
to their new resting-place. During the three months after
the exh^^nlation of the body, it is customary for the family to
wear mourning. Exhumation generally takes place in the third
month of the year, and it is not necessary to obtain the
permission either of the central or local government. During
the Ming dynasty, however, it was imperatively necessary to
obtain the sanction of the ruler of their county. Although
the exhumation of human remains, supposed to be resting
in an unlucky grave, is universally practiced throughout
China at the present day, I have reason to believe that the act
is unlawful. If I mistake not there is a law that any geomancer
who persuades people to exhume their dead upon the ground
that they are resting in unlucky tombs, shall be severely
punished, as well as all who assist him. This law was, I
believe, framed in the twelfth year of the Emperor Yung-ching,
in the year of our Lord 1735.

CHAPTER XIII.

SUICIDES.

The Chinese are perhaps more prone to commit suicide than
the people of any other country in the world. This cannot
be sold to be the result of a deliberate opinion that man is at
liberty to end his mortal existence when he pleases, for the
cases in which suicide is considered praisewortliy are excep-
tional, and it is generally condemned in their literature. Dire
miseries also await the self-murderer in the Hades of the
Buddhist, and the people look upon him as one who must
have sinned deeply in a former state of existence. A Chinese
would find nothing reiDugnant to his notions in Virgil's lines : —

" Proxima deinde tenent mcesti loca, qui silji letum
lusontes peperere manu, lucemque perosi
Projicere animas. Quam vellent a?there in alto
jSTunc et paiiperiem et duros perferre labores !
Fas obstat, tristique Palus inamabilis uuda
Alligat, et novies Styx interfusa coercet."

Notwithstanding this, suicides are, as I have stated, a more
numerous class amongst the Cliinese than amongst any other
race ; and this opinion is confirmed in the account given by
Captain Bedford Pirn in his Gate of the Pacific of the
suicidal mania displayed by the Chinese coolies engaged in
the construction of the Panama railway. Tempted by the very
high rate of wages, "men were brouglit," he writes, "to the
locality in great numbers from China, India, Africa, and almost

330 CHINA. [chap.

every nation in Europe." " Tlieve is no question," he con-
tinues, " of the unhealthiness of that portion of the Isthmus
over which the railway runs, but of the labourers the Chinese
lost the greatest number; for besides those carried off by dis-
ease, a strong suicidal tendency developed amongst this singular
people, and it was not uncommon in the morning to find half-
a-dozen bodies suspended from the trees in close proximity to
the road."

The Chinese commit suicide chiefly by taking opium,^ hang-
ing, or drowning ; and the wretched creatures who are guilty of
tliis act are generally, as amongst ourselves, driven to it by
immorality or destitution ; or overmastered by jealousy, aager,
or disappointment. Suicide by cutting the throat is seldom or
never resorted to, as the Chinese believe that to destroy the
integrity of the body is to add to the misery, or detract from
the happiness, of the soul. As they also believe that in the
world beyond the grave the shades are clad in garments similar
to those which the deceased wore at his death, it is usual for
those who have resolved upon self-d'estruction to put on their
best clothes. Thus attired they frequently resort to the summits
of hills, or other retired spots ; and on several occasions I have
found the bodies of men who had taken poison lying on the
White Cloud mountains. Very often the deed is committed in
some well-frequented thoroughfare when niglit has made it a
solitude. On one occasion I saw the body of a suicide hanging
from the balustrade of a bridge in the western suburb of Canton.
At Macao I found a body suspended from the bough of a tree
which stretched across the street. Several persons were passing
at the same time, but the melancholy spectacle seemed to excite
no emotion, scarcely to attract attention. No one seemed to
consider it a matter of consequence whether the body was to
remain hanging or to be taken down.

Females generally commit suicide in their homes. This,
however, is not always the case, and I remember an instance

^ According to Dr. Henderson of Shanghai, in his pamphlet on Tlie Medicine
and Medical Practice of the Chinese, native orpiment or yellow sulphm-et of
arsenic is occasionally taken ; but he adds that opium is in much greater favour
amongst the Chinese as "the irritating poison produces too nmch suffering and
trouble."

Niii.J FICMALE SUICIDES. 331

— which occurred February 8th, 1871 — in which two married
hidies of the chm or family Toiig became passengers in a
steamer in order that they might jump overboard. These
ladies, mIio resided in the Koong-a-lan street of the Western
suburb of Canton, were sisters-in-law, and, during the absence
of their husbands, had gambled away their money and jew^ellery.
^Accompanied by their maids, they came on the deck of the S.S.
Kin-Shan, and, so soon as the vessel had reached the mouth of
Canton river, they jumped overboard, locked in each other's
arms. Fortunately, however. Captain Carey, who was in com-
mand, promptly lowered a boat and succeeded in rescuing them.
Gambling is, either directly or indirectly, a frequent cause
of wives having recourse to suicide ; and in 1861 a very sad ex-
ample of this occurred in a large mansion adjoining the house
which I was then occupying. INIy neighbour's fifth wife had
incurred the displeasure of her husband — a member of the Ng
family — by losing her jewels at play, and, finding the harsh
treatment to which in consecpience he daily subjected her
unendurable, she took a large dose of opium. When, shortly
afterw^ards; the discovery was made of what she had done, the
aid of Dr. Dods, a medical practitioner at Honam, was imme-
diately sought. I was present on the occasion, and I shall not
readil}' forget the indignation with which I saw her carried to
an outhouse, in order that she might die there. The removal
was effected at Ng's orders, in accordance with an inhuman
custom which dictates that an inferior wife or concubine shall
not be permitted to die in the house of her husband. The
wretched woman recovered, however, under the careful and
kind treatment of Dr. Dods — but only, in consequence of the
renewed cruelty of her husband, to repeat the attempt, and suc-
ceed in ending a life the misery of which she had not strength
of mind to endure.

Canton could teU many a sad tale of the miseries which
gambling has entailed upon the innocent as well as the guilty,
and I cannot forbear recording a singiilarly melancholy case
which occurred in the Cheung-hong Street. Two women were
one day discovered lying together in aHicvJo mortis by the
neiglibours. Ecduced to destitution by tlieir ]iusl:)ands' losses at

332 CIIIX.X [chap.

play, they had attired themselves in their best robes, and decked
their hair with flowers, and then sat down to drink a fatal
dranght wdiicli they had prepared of sugar-water mixed with
.opium. Before doing so, it would seem these poor women had
engaged for the last time in the rites of ancestral worship ; for
upon the altar of the house where they lived and died together,
the customary sacrifices were set out, and the tapers were still
burning, when they were discovered by the neighbours.

Of suicide by men who have ruined themselves at play, the
following case is perhaps a typical one ; and the gambling
centres of Europe could tell many a similar tale. A young
gentleman, exceedingly well-dressed, entered the Tak-Hing
hotel, dined, retired to rest, having given orders that he should
be called early, and w^as found dead in the morning. The pro-
prietor of the hotel immediately laid the matter before the
Nam-hoi magistrate, the result of whose inquiry was a verdict
to the effect that the deceased had committed suicide by taking
opium. In the pocket of the unforturfate youth several pawn-
tickets were found, and it was ascertained from them that he
belonged to the Chan family. But no other particulars respect-
ing him could be obtained. It was supposed by some that he
had come to Canton to attend the literary examinations which
were then being held ; others conjectured that he was a collector
of rents. All agreed that he was a confirmed gambler, and that
the loss of his money at play and the fear and shame of meet-
ing his friends had driven him to the fatal act. The inquest was
delayed, owing to the non-attendance of the magistrate, until
the body had become offensive ; and the landlord, compelled to
remove it from his hotel, hired a small boat for its reception.
After lying in this for three days, the body was removed to
the wharf of the Custom-house, where the mandarin, sur-
rounded by numerous attendants, held his inquiry over a mass
of corruption.

In all probability more cases of suicide arise from quarrels
than from any other cause. In 1862 I was walking with some
friends in the "Western suburb of Canton, when my attention
was arrested by a scene of excitement which w^as being enacted
between the elders of the street and some women, whom the .

XIII.] SUICIDE FPvOM L'EVENGK. 3;}3

tbniier were threatening to take before the magistrate. Upon
making inquiries I learned that a poor woman — a neighbour of
the viragos wlio were being threatened — had hanged herself
in consequence of the sliameful way in which the latter had
treated her. They had not only refused to pay her a sum
of money which they owed her, but had maltreated her ; and
in the excitement of the quarrel the victim of their cruelty
formed, and immediately carried into execution, the resolution
of hanging herself. Tiie elders contented themselves with saying
to the offenders that if they did not defray all the expenses of
the funeral of the deceased, they would be taken before the
magistrate — a decision to which these worthies had evidently
come after carefully considering how they might save them-
selves all trouble in the matter. As another illustration of
suicide arising out of a quarrel, I may mention a case which
occurred at Canton in 1853. The quarrel was certainly not one
on account of which an Englishman would have dreamed of
making away with himself. Ho Akow, who was door-keeper
of the Consular church at Canton, was accused by the gardener
employed in the old factory garden of having killed his canary.
Ho Akow denied the charge, and declared that the bird had
been destroyed by a rat. The gardener who in his grief v\'ould
hear of no such explanation, repeated his accusation, where-
upon Ho Akow, deeply resenting the charge, went into the
church tower, of which he had the keys, and poisoned himself
by taking opium.

The passionate sense of injury which led to suicide in the
cases we have just described cannot be said to exclude re-
vengeful feelings, but it is also not uncommon for persons to
make away with themselves with the express intention of being
revenged on those who have injured them. To quote one
example only, I find in the Fckiii Gazette of June 19th, 1872,
that " a family of four persons, having first drawn up a state-
ment of their grievances, threw themselves into a well, in order
that they might be revenged on a relation who had cheated
them out of a part of their patrimony, and otherwise ill-treated
them. Xow that the case has been brought prominently for-
ward," the writer adds, " it \vill go hard with the persecuting

334 CHINA. • [chap.

relative, but the tragedy is a fearful illustration of how
wretchedly justice must be administered, and how difficult it
is for the feeble to invoke its protection against the strong and
unscrupulous."

Jealousy is, as may be supposed, a fruitful source of suicide
in a land where polygamy is extensively practised. In 1863,
my attention was directed to a case which occurred in the
family of a gentleman named Ho. It seems that the first wife
of this gentleman was jealous of the second, who had usurped
lier place in the husband's affections. It happened, however,
that on account of illness the latter was removed to a medical
missionary hospital at Canton, which was then, and is now, I
believe, presided over by a good and excellent physician named
Dr. Kerr. Ho now regularly visited the hosx^ital to the vexa-
tion of his first wife, who repeatedly expostulated with him,
and used various expedients to prevent his visits. At last one
morning he received a communication to the effect that his
second wife was dying. He hastened to her death-bed, and \^•as
only in time to take a last farewell of her. JNIeanwhile' his
absence was observed by his first wife, who, learning its cause
from the servants, shut herself up in her room, and, overmastered
by jealousy, poisoned herself with opium.

Frequently suicides are the result of immorality, and a melan-
choly case of this kind came under my notice at Canton.
Observing on one occasion a crowd endeavouring to break into
a house, and learning that it was suspected to contain the
bodies of two suicides, I waited until the door had been forced,
and then entered. Passing through a kitchen, I came to an
inner chamber, where two bodies lay stiff in death. They were
those of a man and woman who had bound themselves to each
other by their queues. Near them were two small earthenware
vessels which had contained opium. The story was a very simple
one. The young woman, who was unmarried, had been discovered
by the elders of the village to be enceinte ; and, as is customary
in such circumstances, had been ordered to quit the home and
village of her fathers for ever. Provided with a small sum of
money which the elders had given her, she had reached Canton,
where, of course, nothing but a life of prostitution awaited her.

xiii.] surr'iDE FiU):\L nnroRALiTv. 335

The partner of her guilt had followed her, and urged, it was
supposed, that they should commit suicide together. They then
hired the liouse in which they were found, and poisoned them-
selves. The harshness which drives such women from their
homes is much to he regretted, as, in nearly every case, they
are compelled to adopt a life of prostitution. In some instances,
however, they are bought as second or third wives by men who
are childless. In a case in wliich the rash act of the suicide
followed the discovery of a theft which he had perpetrated, the
wretched man, who was one Lee Heong-peng, a native of
Sam-woee, left behind him the following letter : —

" Having no oecu])atioD, and finding my home uncomfortable
in consequence of the irritable temper of my father, I resolved
to leave it. My grandmother having provided me with a letter
of introduction to one named Cheng Chung-chein, with the hope
that he would obtain for me a situation in tlie family of a
foreign merchant or gentleman, and my grandmother having
promised him for any good services which he might render
me the sum of twenty-three dollars, Cheng Chung-chein
obtained a situation forme in the family of a foreign gentle-
man. Having, however, after a servitude of twenty days
been very rude, I was dismissed, and became a vagrant, being
in truth without friends in the world. A few days, how^ever, after
my dismissal from service, I called at the residence of my former
master, who was absent from home, and I was invited by his
domestics, my former fellow-servants, to stay and dine. This
invitation I accepted. Upon leaving the house in question at
the close of the evening it was discovered that certain articles
had been stolen, and suspicion resting upon me, I was at once
accused of theft. Of this theft I was in truth guilty ; and having
greatly disgraced myself, and being in consequence utterly
devoid of friends and acquaintances, I have resolved to pawn all
my superfluous clothes, &c., and to expend the proceeds in dining
sumptuously at an hotel in the city of Canton, and at the close
of the banquet, and in the hotel, to commit suicide. When I am
dead, let no one accuse the landlord or servants of the hotel in
which my dead body may be found of having murdered mo.
Further, inform my parents of my death, and beg of them to give
interment to my remains.— Tung-chee, 10th year, 11th month."

Before passing from this painful list of examples of suicide
amongst the Chinese, I may mention that for a period of four

336 CHINA. [cuAP.

years, during which he was most faithful and obedient, I had as
a servant a man named Lou-X'g-Fok, whom I rescued from the
Canton river into which he had thrown himself. When taken
from the water he seemed in a dying state, but with care and
attention he soon recovered. Friendless and destitute he had
had no desire to live, he told me. He remained under my roof
several days; and, observing that he was one in wdiom confi-
dence might be reposed, I kept him with me as a domestic
servant — a step which I never had any cause to regret.

Many Chinese believe that suicides are tempted to their fate
by a sjDirit who presents them with a golden necklace ; and
when the deed has been perpetrated in the house, a religious
ceremony is performed in it by a Taouist priest for the expul-
sion of this or other seducing spirits. After the priest has made
a great many signs, and performed the kow-tow, he receives
from the inmates a small black dog, together with a chopper
and a block ; and when he has severed its tail from its body
with a sharp blow, the wretched animal, with a cord round its
neck, is led or rather dragged, piteously howling, by tlie head of
the family into every nook and corner of the house. It is then
taken to the front door and kicked into the open street. The
bleeding and yelping cur is supposed to frighten away the evil
spirits, and to pursue them in their flight through the streets.
By w^ay of purifying the house, the priest tlien walks through it
wdth a brass pan containing a burning mixture made of sulphur,
saltpetre, and other inflammable ingredients. He is preceded by
one bearing a lighted torch, and at intervals he flings portions
of the burning mixture into the air. The ceremonies of exorcism
and purification are now complete, but lest the spirits should
return, the priest before his departure leaves several mystic
scrolls written on sheets of red paper, to be posted above the
doors of the apartments. Should the deceased have committed
suicide by hanging, the beam from wdiich he suspended himself
is removed, lest his spirit should return to rest upon it.

The Chinese have also another curious superstition to the
effect that the Pak, or power by which a man is able to walk,
goes into the floor of the house when he commits suicide, and
assumes there, if allowed to remain, the form of a piece of char-'

xiii.] HONOURABLE SUICIDES. 337

coal. They further believe that if the Pak be not removed,
other members of the family, or future tenants will be tempted
to commit suicide in the same room. It is therefore usual to
dig to a depth of two or three feet in order to remove
the Vak.

But if the wretched being whom the Nemesis of evil deeds
or the overmastering fury of passion has driven to self-destruc-
tion incurs the reprobation or contempt of the Chinese, they
hold in very different estimation those who have been impelled
to this course by a sense of honour. Theirs is the death of the
virtuous and the brave, and for them the gates of Elysium open
wide. The Hrst class of sviicides of this description is called
Chung-Shan, and comprises all servants or officers of state who
choose not to survive a defeat in battle, or an insult offered
to the sovereign of their country. Thus, wdiile, on the capture
of the Bogue Forts by the British in the first war wliich Great
Britain waged with China, Kwan Tai-poee rendered his name
and family illustrious by committing suicide, the famous Yeh,
on the other hand, incurred the hatred of his countrymen by
not following so noble an example when Canton fell in 1857.
"When the Takoo Forts were captured in 1860, many of the
mandarins committed suicide. AVe also read in the account
given of the Conference held at Pekin in 1861 — at which
Sir Henry Parkes was present — that when it was shown
that the only course open to the Chinese was submission
to the foreign force without, one of the mandarins suddenly
brought the proceedings to a standstill by deliberately leaving
the meeting in order to commit suicide. In some instances
the wives of officials also commit suicide. This was done by
the wife of the Pun-yu magistrate rather than submit to the
insult offered to the august Emperor of China by the attack of
British troops upon Canton. While her husband was leading
his troops against the enemy — for in times of extremity a
civil magistrate is called upon to take military duties — this lady
arrayed herself in her most costly dress, presented each of
her attendants with a gift of money, and, withdrawing to
a private chamber, ended her life by strangulation. A temple
was erected to her on the Koon-Yam hill by the Cantonese,.;^'^!

VOL. I. z

338 CHINA. [I'HAP.

and its name, Tchu-Chaug-tsze, was bestowed on it by
H.I.M. Tung-chee.

Another class of honourable suicides comprises young men
who, -when an insult has been offered to their parents which
they are unable to avenge, prefer not to survive it. A third
class, called Tsze-Foo, consists of affectionate wives who refuse
to survive their husbands. This custom, which at once reminds
one of the sutteeism which used to be practised in India, pre-
vails, I believe, throughout China, but is apparently more
generally practised in the eastern province of Fokien. Widows
on such occasions are dressed in robes of red, and commit suicide
by hanging, either in their own houses in the presence of their
relatives, or in the streets or open plains, surrounded by a vast
concourse of people. When they ascend the dais on which they
are about to immolate themselves, they are worshipped by the
people; and after their death, tablets bearing their names are
placed in the temples which are erected in honour of virtuous
women in every city of the empire. Such a scene of voluntary
death is thus described in the Hong-Kong Dailij Press of January
20th, 1861 :—

" A few days since," says the writer, " I met a Chinese pro-
cession passing through the foreign settlement, escorting a
voung person in scarlet and gold in a richly decorated
chair— the object of wliich I found was to invite the public
to come and see her hang herself, a step she had resolved
to take in consequence of the death of her husband, by which
she had been left a childless widow. Both being orphans
this event had severed her dearest earthly ties, and she hoped
by the sacrifice to secure herself eternal happiness, and a
meeting with her husband in the next world. Availing myself
of the general invitation, I repaired on the day appointed to the
indicated spot. We had scarcely arrived, when the same pro-
cession was seen advancing from the joss-house of the widow's
nptive village towards a scaffold or gallows erected in an adja-
cent field, and surrounded by hundreds of natives of both sexes ;
the female portion, attired in gayest holiday costume, was
very numerous. I and a friend obtained a bench for a con-
sideration, which being placed within a few yards of the scaffold
gave us a good view of the performance. The procession having
reached the foot of the scaffold, the lady was assisted to ascend
by her male attendant, and, after having welcomed the crowd,

xni.] SUTTEEISM. 339

partook with some female relatives of a repast prepared for her
at a table on the scafibld, which she appeared to appreciate
extremely. A child in arms was then placed upon the table,
whom she caressed and adorned with a necklace which she had
worn herself. 8he then took an ornamented basket containincj
rice, herbs, and flowers, and whilst scattering them amongst the
crowd, delivered a short address thanking them for their attend-
ance, and npholding the motives which urged her to the step she
was about to take. This done, a salute of bombards announced
the arrival of the time for the performance of the last act of her
existence, when a delay was occasioned by the discovery of the
absence of a reluctant brother, pending whose arrival let me
describe the means of extermination. The gallows was formed
by an upright timber on each side of the scatfold, supporting a
stout bamboo from the centre of which was suspended a loop of
cord with a small wooden ring embracing both parts of it, which
was covered by a red silk handkerchief, the whole being sur-
rounded by an awning.

" The missing brother having been induced to appear, the
widow now proceeded to mount on a chair placed under the noose,
and, to ascertain its fitness for her reception, deliberately placed
her head in it ; then withdrawing her head, she waved a final
adieu to the admiring spectators and committed herself to its
embraces for the last time, throwing the red handkerchief over
her head. Her supports were now about to be withdrawn, when
she was reminded by several voices from the crowd that she had
omitted to draw down the ring which should tighten the cord
round her neck ; smiling an acknowledgment of the reminder,
she adjusted the ring, and motioning away her supports was left
hanging in mid air — a suicide. "With extraordinay self-posses-
sion she now placed her hands before her, and continued to
perform the manual chin-chins, until tlie convulsions of strangu-
lation separated them, and she was dead. The body was left
hanging about half an hour, and then taken down by her male
attendants, one of whom immediately took possession of the
halter, and was about to sever it for the purpose of appropriat-
ing a portion, when a struggle ensued, of which I took advantage
to attach myself to the chair in which the body v^as now being
removed to the joss-house, in order to obtain ocular proof of her
demise. Arrived in the joss-house, the body was placed on a
couch, artd the handkerchief withdrawn from the face disclosed
unmistakable proofs of death. This is the third instance of
suicide of this sort within as many weeks. The authorities are
quite unable to prevent it, and a monument is invariably erected
to the memory of the devoted widow."

z 2

Ui) CHIxXA. • [CHAP.

Witli this class of suicides may be ranked young women
whose affianced husbands have died before the day appointed for
the marriage, and who elect not to survive them. Such instances
of devotion are generally set fortli by the governor of the pro-
vince in which they occur, in a memorial to the throne ; and
posthumous honours are usually decreed. Thus, in 1872, the
governor of the province of N'gan-huy brought before the
Emperor the signal virtue of a girl of seventeen, who had com-
mitted suicide on the death of her betrothed ; and we find the
editor of the Shanghai Daily News remarking in his comments
on the case, that " several similar memorials have appeared in
the (Pckin) Gazette during the last twelve months, and they
exhibit a curious phase in the native character — that of putting
a premium on suicide." Women who have been ravished, and
who prefer to die rather than survive the disgrace, are also
included in this class.

A corresponding class among men are the Yee Too, or Faithful
Husbands, who in times of war and rebellion follow the example
of their wives in committing suicide. Fathers also on such occa-
sions sometimes destroy themselves with their daughters. When
our forces captured Amoy, Ningpo, and Chin-kiang, many ladies,
evidently thinking that our soldiers were like the brutal soldiery
of their own country, committed suicide in the presence of
their husbands, who followed their example. Their bodies were
found in the wells and ponds with which Chinese houses are
invariably provided.

To honourable suicides, tablets bearing their names are erected
either in the temples in honour of virtuous men, or in those in
honour of virtuous women. Monumental arches of granite or
brick, which are in many cases richly carved, are also built in
their honour in cities or their neighbourhood, or in open plains.
Several of the arches in honour of virtuous women are very
imposing — those, for instance, which I saw at Chin-kiang on the
Yang-tsze ; at Choo-loong-shan near Woo-see Hien on the banks
of the Grand Canal ; and at Soo-chow.

Before concluding this chapter, I may observe, as a singular
fact, that in the early Christian Church suicide under certain
circumstances Avas also deemed honourable ; and in Mr. Leckv's

XIII.] HONOURABLE SUICIDES. 341

"European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne" wc have
the following interesting remarks on the subject : —

"There were," he writes, "two forms of suicide which were
I'egarded in the early Church with some tolerance or hesitation.
During tlie frenzy excited by persecution, and under the in-
fluence of the belief that martyrdom effaced in a moment the sins
of a life, and introduced the sufferer at once into celestial joys,
it was not uncommon for men, in a transport of enthusiasm, to
rush before the Pagan judges, imploring or provoking martyrdom,
and some of the ecclesiastical writers have spoken of them with
considerable admiration, though the general tone of the patristic
writings and the councils of the Church condemned them. A
more serious difficulty arose about Christian women wdio com-
mitted suicide to guard their chastity when menaced by the
infamous sentences of their persecutors, or more frequently by
the lust of emperors, or by barbarian invaders. St. Pelagia, a
girl of only fifteen, who has been canonized by the Church,
and who was warmly eulogized by St. Ambrose and St. Chry-
sostom, having been captured by the soldiery, obtained permission
to retire to her room for the purpose of robing herself, mounted
to the top of the house, and flinging herself down, perished by
the fall. A Christian lady of Antioch, named Domnina, had
two daughters renowned alike for their beauty and piety. Being
captured during the Diocletian persecution, and fearing the loss
of their chastity, they agreed by one bold act to free themselves
from the danger, and, casting themselves into a river by the
way, mother and daughters sank unsullied in the wave. The
tyrant Marceutius was fascinated by the beauty of a Christian
lady, the wife of the Prefect of Rome. Having sought in vain
to elude his addresses, having been dragged from her house by
the minions of the tyrant, the faithful wife obtained permission,
before yielding to her master's embraces, to retire for a moment
to her chamber, and she there, with true Pioman courage, stabbed
herself to the heart. Some Protestant controversialists have
been scandalized, and some Catholic controversialists perplexed,
by the undisguised admiration with which the early ecclesias-
tical writers narrate these histories. To those who have not
suffered theological opinions to destroy all their natural sense
of nobility, it wall need no defence."

CHAPTEE XIV.

TITLES OF HONOUR AND VISITS OF CEREMONY.

In China there are orders of nobility which differ in a few
minor respects from our own ; and although it is impossible for
me to enter into nice distinctions regarding the dignities of
the " Middle Kingdom," I may be able to furnish a succinct
account of the titles of honour which correspond with those
of Great Britain. The Chinese have what may be termed
dukes, marquises, earls, barons, and baronets. These ranks
are respectively named: — Koong (duke), How (marquis), Paak
(earl), Tze (baron), and Nan (baronet). Five in number, they
represent, according to Morrison's Dictionary, the five elements
in nature, namely, water, fire, wood, metal, and earth. Nobles
of these various grades rank, I apprehend, above all other
subjects of His Imperial Majesty.

Each of these orders of nobility is divided into classes accord-
ing to the number of generations for which the title is allowed
to be inherited. Dukes are divided into three classes, the
titles of the first class not descending beyond the heirs male of
the twenty-sixth generation. The titles of the second class
cannot descend beyond the heirs male of the twenty-fifth gene-
ration; nor those of the third class beyond the heirs male of
the twenty-fourth generation. Certain dukedoms, however,
continue so loufj as there are heirs male to inherit them.
Marquises are also, like dukes, divided into classes according
to the number of generations. These classes, four in number,
hold their marquisates for twenty-three, twenty-two, twenty-

en. XIV.] ORDERS OF NOBILITY. 343

one, and twenty generations respectively. Some marquisates,
also, continue to exist so long as there are male heirs to inherit
them. According to the same principle, earls are divided into
four classes, the number of generations during which the several
classes are permitted to retain this rank being respectively
nineteen, eighteen, seventeen, and sixteen. The first class of
barons only hold them for fifteen generations, the other tliree
classes for fourteen, thirteen, and twelve generations respec-
tively. Tlie title of baronets is only held in the first class for
eleven generations, the three remaining classes holding their
titles, for ten, nine, and eight generations. Precedence among
the members of each order is, of course, determined by the
class to which they belong.

Besides these five orders of nobility there is a further degree
of rank which is termed Kee-Too-Wye ; and a still lower grade
termed Wan-Kee-Wye. The former rank descends in families
belonging to its first class, no further than the heirs male of
the third generation ; and in its second class to the heirs
male of the second generation. The latter rank, Wan-Kee-
Wye, descends only to the immediate male heir. It is appa-
rently not dissimilar to knighthood in Great Britain, and
carries with it a right to a title of honour. There is a
degree of rank which is termed Yan-Kee-Wye, and which is
inherited by the descendants of dukes, marquises, earls, barons,
and baronets, wdien these titles by effluxion of tenure have
become extinct. In China, as in Great Britain, earls are, in
some instances, raised to the dignity of marquises, and mar-
quises to the dignity of dukes. It is customary for an earl,
created a marquis, to transfer his dignity of earl, by royal
permission, to his younger brother. These various dignities
are of very ancient origin and, in the form in which we now
find them, may be traced back to the darkest periods of Chinese
history. The power and authority which once attached to them,
however, have greatly diminished. At one time their possessors
were princes, or powerful feudal chieftains, each wielding a
sceptre over his own territory. The dukes had almost absolute
power over a dominion or principality which was one hundred
li, or thirty miles English in extent. The principality of a

344 CHINA. . [chap.

marquis was nearly equal in area, while earls and barons were
allowed to possess estates whicli did not exceed seventy li, or
twenty-three English miles in area ; and baronets, estates which
did not exceed a limit of fifty li, or sixteen English miles.

In addition to tliese honours there are other degrees of rank
which bring with them the right to certain titles. These
degrees are nine in number, and each degree is divided into
the classes : Cliiiig, correct ; and Tsung, deputy.

Among those who belong to the civil state — using the phrase
loosely as opposed only to the military — the four cabinet
ministers and members of the great council of the nation,
are of the first degree and of the class Ching; and the heads
of the six boards are of the class Tsung in the same degree.
Governors-General of provinces are of the second degree and
of the class Ching ; and provincial governors and treasurers are
of the class Tsung in the same degree. Of the third degree,
criminal judges are of the class Ching, and salt commissioners
of the class Tsung. Of the fourth degree, toutais are of the
class Ching, and prefects of the class Tsung. Of the fifth
degree, sub-prefects are of the class Ching ; and the president of
the astronondcal board, physicians to His Imperial Majesty,
and deputy salt commissioners of the class Tsung. Of the
sixth degree, the vice-president of the astronomical board, dis-
trict rulers whose offices are at Pekin, and the superintendents
of ecclesiastical affairs — four in number — are of the class Ching,
and the chief of the literati, deputy treasurers and deputy judges
of the class Tsung. Of the seventh degree, doctors of law, dis-
trict rulers, masters of ceremonies, and literati in charge of
bachelors of arts, are of the class Ching ; and clerks of the
palace, and clerks of sub-prefects, of the class Tsung. Of the
eighth degree, officials who have charge of temples in honour
of Confucius at the place where the sage w^as born, physicians
of the royal household, chiefs or rulers of salt markets, and
officials in charge of aU provincial, prefectoral, and district
Confucian temples, and priests whose especial duty it is to chant
prayers not only in honour of Heaven but in that of the Sun
and Moon, are of the class Ching ; and officials whose duty it is
to reside in the offices of provincial treasurers for the purpose'

xiv.] GUADES OF OFFICIAL RANK. 345

of comparing the impression of seals, are of the cLiss Tsung.
Of the ninth degree of civil rank, interpreters of the Siamese,
Japanese, and Corcau languages are of the class Ching; and
superintendents of police, and the heads of various classes of
artificers employed in the palace are of the class Tsung. There
is also another class which is termed Mee- Yap-Lou or " not yet
of rank." Men of this class are either keepers of the doors of
provincial treasuries, or of the gates of the metropolis, Pekiu,
or heads of branch custom-houses, or chiefs of the postmen or
couriers. Among those who hold military rank, there are also
nine degrees each of which, as in the former cases, is divided
into the classes of Ching and Tsung. Of the first degree of
military rank, generals of the household troops are of the class
Ching, and generals of Tartar or Chinese troops, and admirals
are of the class Tsung. Of the second degree, the director of
the imperial procession which accompanies the Emperor when
he goes from the palace, generals, and vice-admirals are of the
class Ching, and colonels of the class Tsung. Of the third
degree, members of the body-guard (all of whom are men of
birth and fortune), the general of the royal brigade of match-
lock men, and the keepers (all of whom are military men) of
the imperial tombs, are of the class Ching; generals and
colonels in command of body-guards, who are always in attend-
ance upon the uncle and brothers of the Emperor, are of the
class Tsung. Of the fourth degree, the members of the second
regiment of body-guards are of the class Ching; and the officers
in command of the troops by which the gates of the City
of Pekin are garrisoned, of the class Tsung. Of the fifth
degree, the captains of the third regiment of body-guards are of
the class Ching ; and the captains of the troops who have charge
of the canals, of the class Tsung. Of the sixth degree, officers
in charge of three hundred soldiers are of the class Ching ; and
officers of three hundred policemen, whose duty it is to super-
intend the canals, are of the class Tsung. Of the seventh
degree, soldiers who guard the gates of Pekiu, the head grooms
of the royal stables, and centurions are of class Ching ; and the
liead of the herdsmen ^ who have charge of all animals intended

' This official resirlcs in Tartarv.

346 CHINA. [chap.

for sacrificial purposes, is of tlie class Tsung. Of the eighth
degree, officers in charge of twenty or thirty soldiers are of the
class Ching ; and bearers of the Imperial sedan-chairs are of
the class Tsung. And lastly, of the ninth degree of military
rank, officers in charge of small military stations are of the class
Ching, whilst officers of less note are of the class Tsimg.

Officers of the second degree of rank, whether civil or mili-
tary, can purchase the title of a first degree of rank. The
power, however, which as officers they are called upon to
exercise, is that only of the second rank. The various degrees
confer titles upon those who hold them ; and as the title borne
by those in the first class of a degree is different from that
borne by those in the second class, there are in all thirty-six
titles, eighteen for civilians, and eighteen for those whose
appointments rank as military. I refrain, however, from inflict-
ing the thirty-six titles upon the reader. If the bearer of a
title has received the honour in question from the hands of the
Emperor direct, he places the term Shou before his title. The
father of a son who receives a title, is, also, allowed to assume
a title precisely similar in point of importance to that which
has been conferred upon his son. He, however, places before
his title the term Foong, which implies that he has received
his title in consequence of the renown of his son. If a father
die before his son be ennobled, he, though dead, is never-
theless ennobled. It is necessary, however, for the son in
speaking or writing of his father, or in erecting a tombstone to
perpetuate his memory, to place the term Tsang before the
title — a term which implies that tlie honour is a posthumous
one. Great-grandfathers and grandfathers are also, whether they
be dead, or alive, ennobled by imj^erial decree, if their great-
grandsons and grandsons be so fortunate as to attain to any
of the titles and distinctions of the Chinese empire.

Should a man of title marry, his wife is allowed to bear a
title precisely similar in point of rank. Should, however, this
lady die, a second wife would bear no title, unless he were to
be raised still higher in the scale of nobility during her wife-
hood. A third wife is not allowed to assume a title even
though her husband has one. Should her sons, liowever, become •

XIV.] TITLES OF WIVES. 347

nobles, she is, as a matter of course, allowed to bear a title.
Widows of title are on no account allowed to contract a second
marriage ; and widows who marry clandestinely are never per-
mitted to bear titles. Tlie fathers of mandarins who attain to
the eighth or ninth rank, do not, I apprehend, receive any titles
in consequence of the promotion of their sons. Should the
Emperor, however, at the time of his accesssion, or on the
occasion of his marriage, or the celebration of his sixty-first
natal anniversary, confer rank on all the officials, it is regarded
as the duty of mandarins of the eighth and ninth ranks to give
these honours to their parents. If a governor-general have a
father who is a prefect, it is customary for him to confer the
honour which he receives on such occasions upon his father.
The father, however, must then retire from office.

All military officers in China who fall in battle, and all
civil officers who come to an untimely end in the discharge of
their duties, have posthumous honours conferred upon them.
The eldest sons of such officers also receive titles at the hands
of the Emperor, The importance of such titles depends, in each
case, in a great measure upon the rank which the father held at
the time of his death. The distinction which attaches to the
possession of rank in Chinese society, never fails as a stimulus
to exertion, which if it is not disinterested is indefatigable.

The transition from titles of honour to visits of ceremony is
an easy one. The nation ^^hich has laid down with such
minuteness the distinctions of rank, has elaborated, with an
exactness peculiar to itself, a system of etiquette which pre-
scribes the forms to be observed in official and social intercourse.
A Chinese is seldom at a loss to know what polite observances
nuist regulate his behaviour. Etiquette is an essential part of
his education. That a man should have a knowledge of science
would perhaps not seem in the eyes of many a philosopher of
(3hina so important as that he should know how to comport
himself with perfect propriety in his intercourse with others.
He would argue that it is more essential to learn reverence,
respect, and courtesy, than to acquire any knowledge which -per
se has no moral bearing — a convincing argument, if he could
prove that it were perfectly applicable. These remarks, however,

348 CHINA. [chap.

are suggested by a consideration of the case generally, rather
than by the mere details and punctilios of ceremony which
follow; and which, although it is consistent with the plan of
this work to give an account of them here, may perhaps induce
my readers to imagine that they are deep in the contents of a
book of etiquette. *

The classes from whom etiquette exacts most are naturally
the official classes, and the manner in which Chinese officials
must deport tliemselves towards each other, in what are termed
visits of ceremony, is regulated, according to rank, with the
utmost nicety.

Among those who are of equal rank, and who reside in the
imperial capital, a visit of ceremony is conducted as follows. On
arriving at the door of his friend's house, the visitor, whether he
ride on horseback, or in a carriage, or sedan-chair, presents
through his servant, who on such an occasion never fails to
accompany him, a visiting card, which the door-keeper delivers
to his master. His master inquires how the visitor is dressed,
and if the visitor is in full costume, he at once puts on robes
of a corresponding description. That done, he goes to the
entrance, and invites the visitor to alight and enter. As they
are about to pass through the centre door of the inner gate, the
visitor is requested to take precedence — a request which, in the
first instance, he most politely declines. On his host repeating
it a third time, however, the visitor yields, and advances to-
wards the reception hall, at the door of which the same punc-
tilious interchange of ceremonious civility is repeated. Upon
entering the hall, the host and his visitor kneel, and knock their
heads six times upon the ground. On rising, the former arranges
or affects to arrange, the cushion of the chair on which it is
intended the latter shall sit, and then, bowing, requests him to
be seated. The visitor, who graciously bows in acknowledg-
ment of his host's politeness, seats himself in the chair, which
is placed on the east side of the hall; that which the host
occupies being on the west side. Conversation ensues, and,
after a reasonable time, a servant is ordered to make tea. Two
cups are quickly brought, for the visitor and his host. Before
drinking it, and as they raise the cups towards tlieir lips, they

XIV.] VISITS OF CEREMONY. 349

bow to each other. The visitor now rises from his chair, and
addressing the host, snys, " I wish to take leave; " upon which
the host bows assent, and follows him as he goes towards the
grand entrance of the house. At each doorway through which
they pass, the visitor bows to the host, and requests him not to
advance with him any further. The latter, however, is not
expected to comply with these polite entreaties ; and on reaching
the entrance door, he remains standing until the visitor has
entered his carriage, or mounted his horse, and proceeded on
his way.

If the host be of the first and the visitor of the second rank,
the ceremonies observed differ little from those which I have
described. But, when the visitor, about to seat himself, protests
to the former, who affects to arrange the cushion of his chair
for him, that he is altogether unworthy of such attentions, the
host at once desists. Moreover, the visitor proceeds to arrange
the cushion of the chair which it is proper for the host to occupy,
but is frustrated in his polite endeavour by similar protestations
of unworthiness from the host. The other ceremonies are the
same as I have already described.

An official or gentleman of the third or fourth rank when
visiting one wdio belongs to the first rank, is received by the
latter, not at the grand entrance, but at the inner door of the
house, which by the Chinese is termed Yee-Moon, or second
entrance. The ceremonies which are observed in tlie visitors'
hall are precisely the same as in the former instances; and when
the visitor takes his leave, the host, who only received him at
the inner door, now escorts him to the grand entrance. He does
not, however, wait there until the visitor has entered his chair
or mounted his horse, but at once withdraws to his own
apartment.

A person of the fifth, or sixth, or seventh rank, when calling
upon a person of the first rank, is received in the large hall
and, as they together enter the visitors' hall, the host takes
precedence. Upon entering this hall, the visitor looks to the
north, kneels at the feet of the host, and is told there is no need
for such ceremonies. He then expresses his respect by three
profound bows towards the north, which the host acknowledges

350 CHINA. [(JHAP.

by similar inclinations towards tlie east. When the visitor has
arranged, as he is allowed to do, the cushion of the chair which
the host is to occupy, he requests the latter to sit down, and
grant him an interview of a few minutes. The latter readily
assents, and proceeds to his seat on the south-west side of the
hall, while the visitor places himself in a chair on the east.
Conversation at once takes place. No invitation to take tea is
given by the host, nor does he accompany him on leaving beyond
the second or inner door.

The ceremonies observed in provincial cities and towns are
slightly different. A provincial treasurer, a literary chancellor,
a provincial judge, a salt commissioner, or any other high pro-
vincial official of state does not when calling upon a governor-
general, or a provincial governor, present a card. After passing
through tlie great gate of the palace of the governor-general, or
provincial governor, he alights from his horse or carriage, and
walks to the second or inner gate, where he is received by the
high official himself. Should the visitor be either the literary
chancellor, or the Tartar general, or the commissioner of revenue,
the centre door of the gate (each gate consists of three doors) is
thrown open to allow him to pass. A provincial treasurer or
provincial judge enters by the east door of the gate. The
governor-general or governor immediately conducts him to a
reception hall, generally the east hall, which is also called Fa-
Teang or Flowery Hall. On entering, the visitor looks towards
the north, and says " Pan-sam," or, I respectfully beg to be
allowed to kneel and knock the head. On the governor-general
or governor replying " Tsze," or I am not worthy to receive such
honour, the visitor, instead of performing the kow-tow, bows
three times, each obeisance being graciously acknowledged by
the host who bows in return. The latter now seats himself on
a chair facing the south, and invites his visitor, who bows in
acknowledgment of the courtesy, also to be seated. A chair
placed on the east side of the hall is then occupied by the
visitor, who rises from his seat, and, making a profound bow,
respectfully calls upon the host to hear what he has to say.
The host assents by a low bow. P)0th resume their seats, and .
after conversation the visitor be^s to be allowed to take leave.

XIV.] THE LEE-LIK. 351

He is invited to take a cup of tea. Ou rising to leave, he looks
towards the north, and makes three profound bows, each of
which is acknowledged by a similar inclination by the host,
He then leaves the hall, taking precedence, and walking quickly,
being careful not to turn his back upon the host, by whom he
is being escorted. At the second or inner gate, they take formal
leave by bowing to each other three times. The visitor, how-
ever, does not yet cross the threshold of the inner gate, but
remains standing there until the host, having retraced his steps
to the door of the eastern hall or reception room, looks back
towards him, when he makes three parting bows, which the
host returns. Passing the inner door, the visitor then enters his
carriage, or sedan-chair, and departs. A person of the first
rank when calling upon a governor-general or a provincial
governor, does not present a card. A document^ however, which
the Chinese call Lee-lik, is placed by the visitor in the hands
of an ofiicer styled the Hoo-Fong. The Lee-lik contains not
merely the names and titles of the visitor, but also a brief
account ,of the services which he has rendered to the state.
According to the rules of ceremony, this document ought to
be read aloud in the hearing of the host by the visitor himself,
whilst in a kneeling posture. This ceremony, however, is some-
times omitted. On the visitor's departure, the Lee-lik is
retui-ned to his servant by the Hoo-Fong. On any subse-
quent visit to the same high ofticial, the T'sune-kan is substi-
tuted for it, a document with the visitor's names and titles,
but with no reference to his services to the state, or to
the offices he may have filled. A governor-general or a pro-
vincial governor returns the call of an official of the first
rank on the following day. The visiting card of an olficial
occupying so distinguished a position bears his name only.

A prefect of the fourth rank, when visiting a governor-general
or a provincial governor, is received in the same way as a
provincial treasurer or a literary cliancellor. The bows, how-
ever, which he makes are not acknowledged by the host. An
official of the fifth, or sixth, or seventh rank is not allowed to
pass through the Yune-Moon or carriage gate of a governor's
residence in his sedan-chair, or on horseback. Alighting at this

352 CHINA. [chap.

gate and walking towards the palace, he is received at the inner
gate, and by servants only. On reaching the visitoi's hall,
where he finds the host already seated, he kneels, looking
towards the north, and knocks his head six times upon the
ground, after which, rising to his feet, he makes three profound
bows. Meanwhile the host rises from his chair ; but he does
not bow in return, nor invite his visitor to sit down, nor subse-
quently to take tea. When the visit is finished the visitor
makes three bows and withdraws. If of either of the ranks or
classes above mentioned, he presents his Lee-lik on his first
visit, but on all subsequent occasions substitutes the T'sune-
kan, or card bearing his names or titles. The visits of such
officials are not returned by governors-general or governors.

When a governor-general is on his way from the imperial
capital to his seat of government, it is customary for each pre-
fect and each county ruler through whose prefecture or county
His Excellency may have to pass to meet him, the one at a
distance of three miles from the walls of the prefectoral, and
the other at a distance of three miles from the county city. On
the arrival of His Excellency at a point which is three miles
distant from the provincial capital which is the seat of govern-
ment, the provincial treasurer, the provincial judge, the literary
chancellor, and the commissioner of salt send their cards. On
his arrival, however, at the provincial capital, he is received
outside the gates of the city, by all the officials whether of civil
or military rank, and invited to a reception hall outside the
walls, where they are expected to make most anxious inquiries
respecting the health and happiness of H.I.M. the Emperor.
When His Excellency has answered them and has taken tea, he
is escorted to his Yamun, or Palace, within the city. When the
cavalcade passes the south gate, which is used, not only by the
Viceroy, but by all officials, on making their entrance into the
city within whose walls they have been appointed to exercise
jurisdiction, the guard turns out to receive him, as it does also
at each guardhouse or station en route.

The etiquette for the officers of the Chinese army does not
differ much from that which regulates the intercourse between .
civil officials. When a military mandarin of the second rank

XIV.] VISITS OF MILITARY MANDARINS. 353

lirnposes to visit an officer of the first rank whom he has
not visited before, he dons his armour and huckles to his side
a sword, and a bow, and a quiver in wliich are si.K arrows.
On arriving at the Yune-moon, or carriage entrance of tlie
oflicial residence of the officer to whom he is desirous of
paying his respects, he alights from his state sedan-chair, or
liorse. Shoukl the host, to whom the gatekeeper has forwarded
the mandarin's Lee-lik, send word that it is unnecessary to wear
armour, the visitor retires to an adjoining chamber and puts on
a court dress, retaining, however, his sword, which he is obliged
to wear on such occasions. The military mandarin, who must
enter by the east door of each gate through which he has to
pass, now proceeds to the reception hall, where he finds his host
standing to receive him. He says " Pan-sam," or I respectfully
beg to be permitted to kneel and knock the head ; to which the
host replies, " Pay-me," or I pray you no such attentions. Look-
ing towards the north, the visitor now makes three profound
bows, each of which the host, wdio stands on the east, returns.
They then seat themselves, the host in a chair on the north, and
the visitor in a chair on the east side. At the close of conversa-
tion tea is served, and the visitor rises to take leave. After three
low bows, returned by the host as before, he leaves the reception
room, followed by the host. A few yards from the door of the
reception hall they halt, and again take leave by bowing to each
other three times.

A military mandarin of the third rank when visiting a military
mandarin of the first rank wears armour, and, on entering the
visitors' hall, kneels and knocks his head upon the ground three
times. He then rises, and makes three profound bows, which
his superior officer acknowledges by three half bows. After
conversation tea is served, and on taking leave he again makes
three profound bows, which receive the same acknowledgment.
The host does not leave the reception hall, but commits his
visitor to the care of servants, by whom he is escorted to his
sedan-chair.

Officers of the fourth, fifth and sixth ranks, calling upon an
officer of the first rank, also wear armour. The visitor finds the
host seated, in the visitors' hall, kneels at his feet and povfonns

VOL. I. A A

354 C'lIIXA. . [chap.

the kow-tow, knocking liis head tlu^ee times npon the ground.
.Still kneeling and looking toward the north, he reads aloud to
his host, who remains seated, a document with his names and
titles and the name of his superior officer, together with that of
the station where he has been appointed to serve. On the host
inviting him to rise from his knees and be seated, it is his duty
not to take a chair, but to sit or squat on the east side of the
hall with his face towards the west. At the close of the con-
A^ersation he again kneels and performs the kow-tow, before
leaving. Tea is not served to a visitor of this rank, and he
retraces his steps from the visitors' hall without an escort. The
same ceremonies are observed when an officer of the seventh rank
visits an officer of the first rank, except that he is not invited to
sit down.

It remains for me to describe the etiquette of visits between
military officers and officials of civil rank. A military officer of
the first rank on visiting a governor-general, receives on his
arrival at the Yamun or palace of the latter a salute of three
guns, and is borne in his state sedan-chair, not only through the
middle door of the street gate, or principal entrance, but also
through the middle door of the inner gate. Here the governor-
general is waiting to receive liim, and boAvs are interchanged
betAveen them. They then Avalk in company towards the third gate,
through Avhich, on the threshold of its centre door, they hesitate
to pass, the host urging the visitor to take precedence, and the
Adsitor respectfully assuring his host that he Avail do no such thing.
At last, the Aasitor ceases to be inexorable. Each, upon entering
the visitors' hall, makes three profound boAvs to the other. The
host then seats himself on a couch, arranged on the north side
of the hall so as to face the south, making his guest occupy a
seat on the same couch, on his left hand. If the latter is noble,
the host sits on tlie east, and the visitor on the Avest side of the
reception hall. After conversation and tea, the visitor on takino-
leave is accompanied to the second or inner gate, by the host,
Avho remains there until his visitor re-enters his state sedan-
chair, or mounts his horse and proceeds on his way. A military
officer of the second rank visiting a civil officer of the first
rank, alights from his chair or horse at the outside of the

XIV.] IVIILITARY AND CIVIL lAIAXDAKINS. 355

second or inner door of the Yaniiin or palace. He is received
by his host at the head of the stone steps by which the gate is
approached. The ceremonies are very similar to those I have
just described. On the following day the visit is returned, and
it is an essential point of etiquette that the military officer of
the second rank should receive his visitor at the outside of the
second or inner gate. The visitor does not alight here, but,
attended by his host, is borne to the very door of the reception
lialL The host seats himself facing the south in a chair placed
on the north side of the hall, while his visitor sits facing the
west in a chair on the east side of the hall. Tea is, of course,
presented, and on rising to take leave, the visitor makes a low
bow to the host, which the latter returns. On re-entering his
sedan-chair at the door of the reception hall, he is escorted by
the host to the outside or inner gate. Here the chair-bearers
halt until the host has made three bows, when the bearers
resume their progress. A military officer of the second rank,
and of the class Tsung, calling upon a civil officer of the first
rank, such as a governor-general, must wear armour. He is
also required to alight from his chair or horse at the first or
street gate of the Yamun, and to walk to the second or inner
gate, the east door of Mhich is thrown open for him. Upon
entering the visitors' hall he kneels, looking towards the north,
and performs the kow-tow, knocking his head three times upon
the ground. Upon rising, he takes his station on the east side
of the hall, where he stands whilst engaged in conversation with
the host, and he receives no invitation to seat himself. In due
course he is presented with a cup of tea, but he does not presume
to drink it until he has made a profound bow to the host. ]>efore
leaving the visitors' hall, a master of ceremonies calls upon him
again to perform the kow-tow. A military officer of this
rank calling upon a civil mandarin of the first rank, such as a
provincial governor, is expected to wear armour. On entering
the visitors' hall he also says, " I respectfully beg to be permitted
to kneel and perform the kow-tow." The host however declines
to receive this mark of deference, and the visitor substitutes three
profound bows. The host sits facing the south in a chair on the
north side of ilie hall, and the visitor in a chair on the east side,

A A 2

356 CHINA. [chap.

facing the west. After tea, lie is accompanied by the host to the
door of the reception hall.

A military officer of the second rank calling upon a literary
chancellor, or a governor of canals, or a commissioner of revenue,
presents a visiting card, with his name and titles. At the street
gate of the Yamun, the officer alights from his horse or sedan-chair
and walks towards the inner gate, the centre door of which is
open to admit him. At the door of the visitors' hall he is
received by the host, and makes three profound bows, after
which, with another bow, he presents his Lee-lik. The host and
his visitor occupy chairs facing each other on the east and
west sides of the hall respectively. After they have conversed
for some time, tea is served. Upon withdrawing the visitor is
escorted by the host, who leads Ihe way, to the outside of the
second or inner gate. Almost at each step, he begs the host
to advance no further. On reaching the inner gate, they again
bow to each other. The visitor, however, does not pass through
this gate until the host has retraced his steps to the door of the
reception hall, and looked back, to receive and acknowledge the
three profound bows which the visitor makes before he re-enters
his sedan-chair.

A military officer of the third rank visiting a civil officer of
the first rank, such as a governor-general, must appear in armour.
He alights from his horse or sedan-chair at the street gate of the
Yamun, by the east door of which he is allowed to enter. Here
servants appointed to receive him conduct him through the east
door of the inner- gate to the reception hall, where the host
awaits him. After kneeling and performing the kow-tow, he
presents his Lee-lik. To a visitor of this rank tea is not served,
nor is he invited to sit down. He stands during the interview
on the east side of the reception room, with, his face towards the
west. On leaving the visitors' hall, he makes three profound
bows, which are acknowledged by the host with a bow.

A military mandarin of the third rank, when visiting a
provincial governor, alights from his chair or horse, at the great
gate of the governor's Yamun or palace. He enters through the
east door of this gate, and through tlie corresponding door of
the inner gate. At the door of the visitors" hall he finds the

XIV.] GOVERNOliS-GEXKlJAL. 357

governor, to wliom lie makes tliree profound bows, each of which
is returned. The host then occupies a chair on the north side
of the hall, facing the south, while the visitor seats himself on a
chair on the east side, facing the west. On taking leave, the visitor
bows three times to the governor, who thereupon escorts him as far
as the door of the hall. A military officer of the fourth, fifth, sixth,
seventh, eighth or ninth rank, when calling upon a governor-
general, alights from his chair or horse at the street gate of his
excellency's palace ; and, as in the previous instance, walks to the
visitor's hall through the east doors of the gates. On entering
the hall, he kneels at the feet of the host, and knocks his head
upon the ground three times, after which he reads his Lee-lik to
the host, in a kneeling posture. A visitor of this rank wears
armour on the occasion of such a visit ; and it is not his
privilege to be invited to sit down, or to take tea. When visiting
a provincial governor, a military officer of the fourth rank wears
armour. When, however, he has been admitted into the pre-
sence of the latter, and has performed the kow-tow, he with-
draws, at the request of the host, to divest himself of his armour,
and re-enters, in court costume, making a profound bow.
Although he is not invited to be seated, he is served with tea,
after which he takes his leave, making tliree profound bows,
which the provincial governor, who rises from his chair, politely
acknowledges.

A governor-general of a province or provinces is supposed to
go on a tour of inspection through the vast territorial district
over which he rules as viceroy, three times in each year. The
inspection of troops is the principal object of the tour, and only
garrison cities are visited. On his arrival his excellency is
received by the Chan-Toi, or commandant of the garrison, who,
standing on the right side of the road, makes three profound
bows to him. When the Viceroy has acknowledged these salutes,
he continues his progress in his sedan-chair, and the cavalcade,
which is joined by the commandant, at once proceeds to the
parade ground, where the troops are assembled. When the
Viceroy has taken his seat under a special marquee, the com-
mandant approaches, and begs to be allowed to perform the
ceremony of the kow-tow. This honour, His Excellency declines

358 CHINA. [chap.

to receive, and requests the commandaut to occupy a chair on
his left hand. Before taking the seat the latter makes thiee pro-
found bows, which the Viceroy rising from his chair acknow-
ledges. The review of troops now takes place, and, at its con-
clusion. His Excellency, to w^hom the commandant again makes
three profound bows, re-enters his sedan-chair, and is escorted
back to his state barge.

Tartar generals and Tartar brigadier-generals visit governors-
general and provincial governors, and all military officers of the
first rank on terms of perfect equality. Provincial treasurers,
provincial judges, commissioners of salt, and Toutais when
visiting a Tartar oeneral observe ceremonies similar to those
which require their attention when calling on a governor-general.
A prefect, or a county or district ruler of the fourth, fifth, sixth,
or seventh rank, visiting an earl, observes the same ceremonies
as those which are imposed on a military officer of the second
rank, and of the class Ching, when the latter visits a governor-
general ; and when visiting a duke or marquis, they observe
ceremonies similar to those due by military officers of the
second rank, and of the class Tsung, when they visit a governor-
general. All Tartar military officers visit Chinese officials of
corresponding rank, civil or military, on terms of perfect equality.
Officials serving at Pekin, who are either of the first, second, or
third rank, also the Hanlin of the seventh rank who have duties
to discharge in the imperial palace, and the Hee-Kii-Chu, or
officials who note the actions or movements of the Emperor, and
military officers of the first, second, or third rank who are also
serving at Pekin, are, on making a visit to any of the provinces,
received at the gates of all the cities through which they pass,
by the chief rulers of the cities, whether the latter be governors-
general, or governors, or Tartar generals, or prefects, or county
rulers. On receiving any of these officials from Pekin, the first
duty of the host is to make inquiries respecting the health and
happiness of His Imperial Majesty. A strip of yellow satin on
which expressions of the loyalty of the officials are recorded, is
also given to the visitor on his departure, in order that he may
present it to the emperor on his return.

But let me now record the ceremonies observed by literary

XIV.] LITEllARY GRADUATES. 359

graduates in connection with tlieir degree. Ev^ery successful
bachelor of arts repairs, within a few days after his degree has
been conferred upon him, to a Confucian temple, to pay his re-
spects to the Kow-Koon or governn.ient professors, or lecturers,
two of whom are in charge of each temple dedicated to the great
Chinese sage. The graduate presents his visiting card, and is
escorted to the visitors' hall, where the government teachers
await him. Approaching this hall by the eastern steps, he looks
towards the north on entering, and makes three profound bows,
each of which the Kow-Koon or lecturers acknowledge. The
graduate then stations himself on the east side of the hall, and
looking towards the west, listens attentively to a short address
from one of the lecturers, after which he makes three profound
bows, and withdraws. This first visit is especially regarded as
of a ceremonial character. On an ordinary visit, the lecturers,
when a visiting card has been presented, order their servant
to invite the graduate to enter, and receive him at the door of
tlie visitors' hall. In the centre of the hall he kneels and per-
forms the kow-tow, knocking his head twice upon the ground.
The lecturers, who stand on the east side of the hall, bow.
Eising from his knees, the visitor arranges the cushions of
their chairs, and is invited to seat himself. Before he pre-
sumes to do so, he makes a low bow to the lecturers. The
chairs of the latter are in the south-west corner of tlie hall,
facing the north-east, whilst that of the visitor is on the east
side, facing the west. Sliould the visitor have occasion to ask
a question in the ensuing conversation, he rises from his seat
and bows before doing so. Before leaving he is jjresented with
a cup of tea. On leaving he makes three profound bows towards
the north, which are duly returned by his hosts, who then lead
the way to Ihe second or inner gate. Here the lecturers and the
graduate bow to each other, and part, the former not waiting
until their visitor has re-entered his sedan-chair, but at once
withdrawing to their apartments.

All schoolboys, great and small, when visiting tlieir school-
masters have to observe the following ceremonies : — On
entering the visitors' hall, the pupil carefully arranges the
cushions of the chairs for his host and himself. He then

360 CHINA. . [cHAr.

stations himself outside the door of the hall, where he awaits
the coming of his teacher. When the teacher has arrived, and
invited him to enter, the pupil presents him with a small
packet, which he holds with both hands in an uplifted position.
The packet in question contains a tael of silver. Looking
towards the nortli, he then kneels and knocks his head twice
upon the ground. The teacher responds by bowhig. On rising,
the youth makes inquiries about his tutor and his tutor's parents
— inquiries which, when answered, are followed by similar
questions from the tutor about the youth and his parents.
The teacher then invites his pupil to sit down. In the
course of the conversation, should any question be put
by the tutor, the youth rises from his chair in order to
give the necessary answer. On taking leave, he is not accom-
panied to the entrance door of the house. AVIienever a pupil
enter or leaves the schoolroom, he must make a bow to his
te'acher.

A few lines will suffice to describe the ceremonies generally
observed by people outside official or professional circles, on
paying and receiving visits. A visitor is received at the entrance
door of the house by the host, and escorted to the visitors' hall.
On the way to the hall much politeness is exchanged, the host
bowing at almost every step, and requesting his visitor to take
precedence. Upon entering the visitors' hall, each kneels down,
and knocks his head twice upon the ground. On rising, the
host hastens to arrange the cushions of the chair on which the
visitor is to sit, whilst the latter shows equal courtesy. The
chairs of the host and his visitor are respectively on the east
and west sides of the hall, facing each other. After conversation
and tea, the visitor is accompanied to the entrance door of the
house by his host, whom, at almost every step, he requests to
proceed no further. Where the visitor is a youth, or young
man, and his host liis senior, the order of procedure is natur-
ally somewhat changed. A young man, wdien visiting an old
man, is received by the latter, not at the entrance door, but in
the visitors' hall, upon entering which he looks towards the north,
and, kneeling, knocks his head twice upon the ground. Tliis
mark of deference the host acknowledges by bowing, and invites

XIV. j A VISIT IN NON-OFFICIAL CIRCLES. _^ 361

his visitor to be seated. When they have conversed together,
tea is served ; after which the latter takes his leave. The senior
does not accompany the young man to the door of the house.
Ceremonies precisely similar to these are observed on visits
paid by nephews to uncles, and by sons-in-law to fathers-in-
law.

CHAPTEE XV.

SUMPTUARY LAWS.

The sumptuary laws of Cbiua are very comprehensive.
They restrain the expenditure of citizens in tlie Luikling of
houses, in the luxuries of the table, in clothing, and furniture,
and similar matters. In almost all ages and nations there have
been such laws. As to their utility, different opinions have been
expressed by political economists. I apprelieud that, in coun-
tries of early marriages where the human race increases rapidly,
and the arable lands, though tilled to the ' utmost, scarcely
yield enough bread to satisfy the hungry, a free indulgence in
luxuries would be attended with bad results. Such a social
condition calls for the utmost industry and economy, and if
legislators believe that these virtues can be produced or
fostered by laws, it is natural for them to have recourse to
law-making. The sumptuary laws of China, however, like its
civil and common laws, are very badly executed. This is,
doubtless, due not to maladministration only, but in part to the
reason which Ilallam assigns for the desuetude of sumptuary
laws among western nations — that they are attempts to restrain
what cannot be restrained.

Perhaps the most im]3ortant matter with which these laws
deal in China is the building of houses. With regard to the
residence of an official or gentleman of the first or second rank
an astonishing number of details are prescribed. The founda-
tions of the house must be laid at a depth of twenty Chinese,
inches beneath the surface. The house must consist of nine

CH. XV.] HOUSES. 303

open halls, on each side of which there are suitable private
apartments. The pillars which support the vaulted roofs of
these open halls must be of wood, and painted black. The
ridge-beam of each vaulted roof must be gilded ; or, figures
of flying dragons may be painted on it instead. On the ceil-
ings of the various private apartments there must be painted
representations of dragons, or phcenixes, or cheluns. On the
tops of the vaulted roofs porcelain figures of dragons, or dolphins,
or cheluns must be affixed as exterior ornaments or decorations.
In front of tlie residence there must be a large entrance gate
with a vaulted roof ; and the gate must have three doorways ;
and on the faces of each of the doors, with the view, I
suppose, of giving it the appearance of strength, there must be
seven rows of large headed nails, each row consisting of seven
nails. The doors must be painted green or black, and have
two large copper rings supported by lions heads made of the
same material. In a smaller house of this class the seven rows
of large headed nails on the doors become six, and each row
consists of only six nails. In a still smaller house of this class
another row of nails is struck off, and another nail off each of
the five remaining rows. Houses of officials or gentlemen of
the fourth or fifth rank, must consist of seven open halls, with
suitable apartments on each side. The beams supporting the
vaulted roofs must be painted green, except the ridge beam, the
colour of which must be red. The exterior decorations on the top
of the roof are porcelain figures, not of dragons, but of cheluns.
Each house of this class must be approached by a gateway
covered with a vaulted roof, and consisting of tlu-ee doors or
arches. The doors must be painted black, and rings made of block
tin, and supported by the heads of animals made of the same
material, must be affixed to them. Houses of officials or gentlemen
of the sixth, seven, eighth, or ninth rank must consist of five
open halls, with suitable private apartments. Each house of this
class is to be approached by a folding door, each division of
which must have a plain iron ring, supported by iron lions'
heads. Though without rank themselves, the immediate or
more remote descendants of an official or gentleman of any of
these classes, may reside in the house of their forefathers, and

2C4 CHINA. [chap.

there is no ]aw to compel them to alter the form of the
houses.

The house of a private gentleman or citizen without rank
must consist of five open halls. The beams, excepting of course
the ridge beam, must be painted black. The house must be
approached by a folding door, with no rings or ornaments. On
the ceilings of the private apartments no figures of dragons, or
phoenixes, or cheluns are to be painted.

The sumptuary laws are not less specific with regard to dress.
What the Chinese shall wear in winter and summer is minutely
prescribed from the hat downwards. The law distinctly states
with regard to the winter costume, that the hat to be worn shall
be covered with dark satin, and the inside lined with black cloth.
The brim is to be turned up — which gives it the appearance of
what used to be known as the " pork-pie " hat. The apex
must be adorned with a tassel of red silk so long and so thick
as to cover tlie entire top. The top of a court hat for the winter
season must be covered with red floss silk, so long as to extend
slightly over the brim. The summer hat is to be made either of
fine straw, or of very thin strips of bamboo, or rattan ; the out-
side covered with very fine silk, with a tassel of red silk cords
on the toj). The border must not turn u]). The court hat for
summer is to resemble the ordinary summer hat in all par-
ticulars except the following : — The rim must be covered with
gold lace, and the inside lined with red gauze. On the apex
the tassel must be of floss silk. The travelling hat for summer
is to resemble the ordinary summer hat in form. The red tassel,
however, must be of cow's hair. In addition to the tassel, a
button, indicating by its colour the rank of the wearer, must be
attached to the apex of each hat. For example, the hat worn by
an officer or gentleman of the first rank is distinguished by a
butcon of a bright red colour on its apex A dark red button
distinguishes the second rank; a dark blue button, the third
rank ; a light blue button, the fourth rank ; a crystal button,
the fifth rank; a white button, the sixth rank; a gold button,
the seventh or eighth rank, and a silver button, the ninth rank.
To the back of each hat is also attached a peacock's feather,-
which in the case of a person of high rank has two eyes, while

XV.] DRESS. 365

persons of inferior rank are restricted to a feather wliicli lias
only one eye. The peacock's feather is regarded as the gift
of the Emperor, and is never Avorn by its fortunate possessor
when engaged in celebrating funeral obsequies, or when wor-
shipping the tablet of a deceased relative or friend. Each of
the hats I have described must have a band, which, whenever
the hat is worn, is to pass behind the ears and under the chin.

With regard to the form and texture of tunics tlie specifica-
tions are equally minute. The outer tunic is to be made of
satin of a dark-purple colour, and its sleeves are to be wide and
flowing, but shorter than those of the inner tunic. The body
of this tunic is also to be shorter than that of the inner
tunic. It is to be made to button in front. It must have on the
front and back a piece of embroidered work. The sleeves of
the tunic which is worn in spring must be lined with satin ;
those of the autumn tunic, fringed with fur ; those of the
winter tunic lined with fur. When travelling, a short outer
tunic, made to reach below the hips of the wearer, must be used.
Each outer tunic which I have described must have in front a
row of five buttons only.

Let me now describe briefly the devices, or decorations, worn
on the outer tunics. On that of an official or gentleman of the first
rank must be embroidered in dark gold thread a back and breast-
plate, and upon each of these a Tien Hok or angelic stork must
be wrought in light gold or silver thread. On the outer tunic
of a gentleman of the second rank, and upon a similar back and
breast-plate, the figure of the Kam-Ki or beautiful bird, a species
of pheasant, must be wrought. Similar back and breast- plates are
worn by civilians of all the nine ranks ; the particular rank being
in each case indicated by the device. Among civilians this is
invariably a bird — each rank being denoted by a different kind
of bird — which is represented as standing on a rock in the
midst of a tempestous ocean, with wings outstretched, and gaze
directed towards the sun. The devices for the remaining ranks
are as follow : — For the third rank, a Hong-Tseock, or peacock ;
for the fourth rank, a Wan-N'gan, or wild goose; for the fifth
rank, a Pak-Ham, or silver pheasant ; for the sixth rank, a Loo-
Tsze, or cormorant ; for the seventh rank, a Ki-Chik ; for the

306 CHINA. ' [chap.

eighth rank, a quail ; and for the ninth rank, a Leen Chok, or
white bird.

On the outer tunic of a person of the class Mee-yap-lou, that
is, gentlemen who are expecting positions, the device is the
figure of a Wong-Lee, or yelloui bird.

Military officers must w^ear similar back and breast plates
containing a device in light gold thread to indicate the rank
of the offiicer. The devices are animals represented as standing
on a rock in the midst of a tempestuous ocean, looking towards
the sun. The devices for the various ranks of military ofhcers
are as follow : — For the first rank, the figure of a kee -lun, or
chelun, a fabulous animal which is said to have the legs and hoofs
of a cow, the head of a dragon, and the body of a sheep covered
with scales ; for the second rank, a Sze-Tsze or lion ; for the
third rank, a leopard; for the fourth rank, a tiger; for the fifth
rank, a bear : for the sixth or seventh rank, a chetah ; for the
eighth rank, a sea-horse.

The criminal judge of each province occasionally vvears on
the back and breast plate of his outer tunic, a figure of an
animal called by the Chinese Hi-Chi. This fabulous animal is
supposed to have the power of distinguishing good from bad
men, and it is said that it butts all bad people with its horns.

On the outer tunic of a nobleman there is embroidered in
dark gold thread a back and breast plate with the device, in light
gold thread, of a dragon with four claws at the extremity of
each leg. In some instances, however, that is where the Imperial
sanction has been obtained, the dragon is represented as havin<T
five claws on its legs. The device of a dragon is worn by dukes
marquises, and earls ; barons and baronets wear the device of a
lion. Tippets or jackets, having deep gold borders, and embroid-
ered with figures of dragons, are also worn by noblemen.
Jackets of yellow satin are also bestowed by the Emperor as
marks of distinctions upon officers both civil and military, who
have rendered especial services to the state. The inner tunic h
made of blue silk. It reaches from the neck to the ankles, and
is confined to the waist by a sash or belt. The sleeves are to
fit close to the arms, and the cuffs must resemble tlie hoofs of a.
horse in form. The inner tunic must have in front a row of five

XV.] COURT DE ESSES. 3G7

buttons only. On these tunics the rank of the wearer is indi-
cated by the number of dragons embroidered on them in gold
thread. On the inner tunic of an officer of the first rank, nine
dragons are embroidered. An officer of the second rank, has
eight dragons on his tunic ; an officer of the third rank, seven
dragons ; an officer of the fourth, fifth, or sixth rank, six
dragons ; and an ofticer of the seventh, or eighth rank, five
dragons. The dragons have at the extremity of each leg four
claws only.

The Shee-Wye, a class of officials always in attendance upon
His Imperial Majesty, also wear tunics embroidered with figures
of dragons. These officials are divided into four ranks or
classes, and the dresses worn by the members of each class are
similar to those worn by civil and military officers of corre-
sponding rank. Officers or gentlemen of rank are not allowed to
wear robes of a light or dark yellow colour without Imperial
permission ; nor are they allowed to wear the fur of an animal
called Yune-Woo, which is, I believe, a dark-coloured fox.
Court dresses can only be worn on occasions of state worship,
or banquets ; or on the celebration of the birth or natal anni-
versary of any member of the Imperial family ; or on the first,
fifth, tenth, fifteenth, twentieth, or twenty-fifth day of each month.
The outer tunic of the court may also be worn by an official or
gentleman of rank, when paying or receiving visits from officers
of high rank. Besides the dresses I have described, there are
what are termed rain-clothes. These must be of a bright red
colour, for officials of the first rank. Gentlemen of the second or
third rank must have a red hat and purple robes. Those of the
fourth, fifth, or sixth rank must wear a hat with a purple
border, and a red dress. For the seventh rank, the hat and cloak
must be purple, and for the eighth or ninth rank, the hat must
be purple with a red border. Eain clothes worn by military
officers of various ranks are the same in every respect as those
which are worn by civil officers of corresponding rank. A^'itl^
equal minuteness the laws prescribe the style of dress which
graduates must adopt. The dress of a bachelor of arts is a long,
light blue silk tunic "with a purple border. It is girt about the
waist of the T>'earer bv a sash or belt. His boots are of satin.

3G8 CHINA. • [chap.

The hat is similar in shape to that worn by officials and gentle-
men. The dress of a master of arts consists of a long, dark blue
silk tunic with a light blue border. It is bound to the waist
by a sash or girdle. The hat and boots of a master are the same
as those of a bachelor. The priests of the sect of Buddha are
on no account allowed to wear silk dresses, except when per-
forming certain sacred rites. Nor are they permitted to spread
silk coverlets on their beds, or to have silk curtains round them.
They must not use vessels made of silver or gold, or inlaid with
mother of pearl. Their dress is very plain, and consists of a
long grey cowl with loose flowing sleeves. In short, it appears
to resemble in shape, the cowl of a Christian monk. The
materials of which it is made are coarse fabrics. These remarks
also apply to the priests of the sect of Taou.

The dress worn by the ol ttoXXo/ consists of a jacket reaching to
the hips, and a pair of wide trousers. These garments are made of
cotton fabrics. In the winter season, a pair of cloth shoes, a pair
of stockings, and a skull cap are added. Shopkeepers and respect-
able artificers wear cloth shoes, stockings, caps, trousers, and
long blue cotton tunics, and, in some instances, a tippet or cape
of black, or blue broad cloth. In summer, however, the cap is
dispensed wdth, and a tunic of Avhite calico, or grass cloth is
substituted for the long blue cotton tunic. The gentry, in ad-
dition to their under garments, wear long plain or flowered
tunics of silk. The colour is either blue, purple, claret, or buff.
Tippets or capes of fur are also worn by them when the weather
is at all cold. To the apex of the cap, which is also made of
silk, a button of red silk cord is attached, and to the front bor-
der of it a false, or true pearl, or a precious stone is affixed. A
person who has attained the age of seventy years, is allowed, if
he be of good report, to wear a dress similar to that of an
official of the ninth rank ; and one who has reached the ripe age
of ninety, and who is of good report, is permitted to wear a
dress similar to that worn by an oflicial of the seventh rank.
Play actors, slaves, and. bastards are denied this privilege, and
they are also forbidden to wear silk dresses. They may, how-
ever, wear dresses made of what the Chinese call Kan-Chow.
This fabric is woven of silk threads ol»tained from lara^ silk-

XV.] LADIES' COURT DRESS. 369

worms wliich are not reared in houses, but feed, in their natural
state, upon the leaves of oak trees. The skins of sheep and
goats are the only furs which the sumptuary laws permit such
persons to line their dresses with in winter. No ordinary
citizen is allowed to wear a dress on which are embroidered in
gold or silk thread, figures of dragons with five claws attached
to the extremity of each leg. An offender would have to bear
the cangue or wooden collar for a month, after which he would
receive a fiogging of one hundred blows. The people must not
wear dresses embroidered with gold thread. They are permitted,
however, to embroider their dresses with silk thread.

A lady when attending court, wears a hat precisely similar in
shape and texture to that worn by her husband on such
occasions. To the back of the hat, however, are attached two
long silk ribbons, which hang down over her shoulders. A
simpler hat is occasionally worn. The outer and inner tunics
are of the same length. From the back of the neck-band of the
outer tunic, two ribbons hang gracefully down. In front of her
hat, a duchess wears three gold ornaments. Around her neck
is a purple satin scarf which hangs down in front. The front
portion of the scarf has, in the centre of it, a fringe of gold thread.
Above this is the figure of a phcenix, and below it that of a dragon,
embroidered in gold thread. Immediately above the fringe is
fixed a large pearl. Three ear-rings are placed in the lobe of each
ear, and from each ring hangs a valuable pearl. The outer tunic
worn by a duchess, is of purple satin, and has a deep border of
gold. On the front of the tunic, figures of two dragons are em-
broidered in gold thread, and on the back a figure of one dragon
only. From the back of the neck-band are suspended two long
silk ribbons, on each of which are sewn several precious stones
or pearls. The inner tunic is of blue silk, and has a deep border
of gold adorned with precious stones. On the front of the inner
tunic a figure of a dragon is embroidered in gold thread. On
each side of the tunic figures of four, on each cuff a figure of
one, and on each sleeve figures of two dragons are embroidered.
From the back of the neck-band of the inner tunic, two long
ribbons are suspended, each of which is covered with pearls.
The skirt worn by a duchess is of red satin. T'''pon it are
VOL. I. B B

370 CHINA. • [(HAP.

emb.roidered in gold thread several figures of walking dragons.
The ordinary dress of a duchess consists of an inner tunic of
blue silk, on which are embroidered in gold, figures of nine
dragons ; and an outer tunic, with figures of eight dragons.
These representations are in the form of circles. The dress of
a marchioness is very similar to that of a duchess, but is not so
resplendent with bullion and pearls. The wife of a civil officer
of the first rank wears a hat like that worn by noblewomen.
Her outer and inner tunics are in form, texture, and colour,
the same as those worn by a duchess. The device, however, which
is embroidered in gold on her dress, is that of a red-headed egret.
Like all other ladies of rank, she wears the device of the class to
which her husband belongs. Wives of military officers, how-
ever, wear figures of birds, not of beasts, on their outer tunics.
Their inner tunics are embroidered with dragons, the number of
which is determined by the husband's rank. Thus the wife of a
military officer of the first rank has eight or nine dragons em-
broidered on her inner tunic, and the wife of an officer of the
seventh, eighth, or ninth rank has only five. Wives of gentle-
men who are without rank, may wear vestments of silk, but
they are not allowed to wear tunics, or head-dresses, or pearls like
those of the wives of men of rank. Each lady is limited to one
gold hair-pin, and to one pair of gold ear-rings. If they feel
disposed they may wear silver hair-pins, and earrings, and rings
of the same material in great profusion.^

We turn to the various emblems or insignia which officials
and gentlemen of rank are allowed to use when passing in pro-
cession through the streets of a city. In the procession wdiich
accompanies an officer of the first rank residing at Pekin, the
insignia are as follows :— one large red umbrella ; two large

1 Hair-pins were used at a very early period in Ciiina. The date given is B.C.
1122, when the Chow dynasty was reigning. In the first instance they were
made of bamboo. In the reign of Siang-Wang, however, the eighteenth emperor of
the Chan dynasty, in the year B.C. 651, hair-pins made of ivory were introduced
to the notice of ladies of fashion ; and in the reign of King- Wang, the twentj'-
fifth emperor of the same dynasty, hair-pins made of tortoiseshell were regarded
as the most becoming of all. In the reign of Chi Hwangte, that is, about the
middle of the third century B.C., hair-pins, made either of silver or gold, were held
in great requisition. As the head of each gold or silver hair-pin was wrought
so as to resemble a phcenix, these were called phcenix pins.

XV.] OFFICIAL PROCESSIONS. 371

fans, in the centre of which are recorded in letters of goLl the
name and titles of the officer, and on each of which are painted
four representations of the sun ; four banners ; four spears, and
t\vo yellow rods of office. In the procession of an officer of the
second rank there are only three representations of the sun on
each of the fans, and tw^o spears are carried instead of four. Two
of the banners which are carried have the figure of a dragon on
the one side, and tliat of a tiger on the other ; and the other two
banners have the characters Tsing and Poo, which mean " clear
the way," inscribed on each of their sides. An officer of the
third rank has only two representations of the sun painted on
the fans of his procession ; and for the fourth rank, the fans are
merely bespangled with gold. One fan only is allowed to officers
of any of the remaining ranks. The processions are also regulated
according to rank in some other respects. These processions
only take place in Pekin, when an officer is leaving the imperial
capital en route to a station which has been assigned him in one
of the provinces. Officers of the various ranks, who reside at
Pekin, ar-e usually accompanied when riding through the streets
by a certain number of equerries. An officer of the first rank is
accompanied by ten equerries, two of whom precede him, while
eight follow. An officer of the second rank is preceded by tw^o,
and followed by six equerries ; an officer of the third rank is
preceded by two and followed by four equerries ; while an officer
of the fourth rank is simply preceded by one. An officer of the
fifth, sixth, or seventh rank is followed by one. A red tassel
attached to the martingale of a horse indicates that its rider is
an officer of one of the first four ranks. Tartar officers who are of
the blood royal, the four high ministers of state who constitute
the cabinet council, the presidents of each of the six boards, and
officers also of the second rank, if aged and infirm, may when
passing through the streets of Pekin, ride in state sedan-chairs.
With these exceptions all other officers, and their immediate,
retainers, ride on horseback, except when leaving Pekin, en route
to a provincial station. An officer of the first, second, or third
rank then rides in a sedan chair borne by four bearers. So soon,
however, as the chair has passed beyond the gates of the city,
eight bearers are appointed. To the sedan chair of an officer of

B B 2

372 CHINA, • [chap.

an inferior rank, two sedan-chair bearers are appointed on such
occasions, and outside the gates of the city the number is
increased to four. The sedan chair of the higher official is
furnished with dark- coloured curtains, and the top of it is
surmounted by a silver globe or ball. That in which an
officer of lower rank rides is surmounted by a globe or ball
of block tin.

Passing from the imperial capital to the provinces, let me
note the nature and style of the insignia of office. To begin
with the procession which accompanies a governor-general of a
province, or provinces. When passing in his state sedan-chair
through the streets of a city, there are borne in his train two
large silk umbrellas ; two banners, on each of which are repre-
sentations of winged tigers ; two rods of office, on the top of
each of which, as an emblem of authority over the troops, is the
figure of a clenched fist ; two swords, each of which is supposed
to resemble in shape the feather of a wild goose ; two swords,
the hilt of each of which is adorned with the head of an animal
in brass ; two yellow rods of office ; two white rods of office,
each of which is made of the branch of a tree called by the
Chinese, Toong ; two wooden boards painted red, on which are
written in gold the characters Wooee and Pee, which are intended
to warn persons who are riding in sedan-chairs, or who are
bearing heavy burdens through the narrow streets, to turn aside
and avoid meeting his excellency's cavalcade ; two wooden
boards painted red, on which in gold are the characters Shuk and
Tsing, or Be respectful and silent ; feur spears, in addition
to the two banners, and eight other banners on which are painted
figures of dragons. The procession of a provincial governor is
distinguished from that of a governor-general by the absence of
the rods indicating military authority, by fans substituted for
the banners with winged tigers, and by only two swords and two
spears being carried. Similar points of difference indicate the
lower rank of treasurers and judges of provinces, and of toutais
and prefects. The sedan-chair of a governor-general or a pro-
vincial governor, or a Tartar general, or a commissioner of
revenue, is borne by eight men. Provincial treasurers, provincial
judges, literary chancellors, salt commissioners, toutais, and

XV.] INSIGNIA OF OFFICE. 373

prefects are limited to four bearers. The number of equerries is
in each case, of course, regulated by rank. The procession is
headed by lictors, who carry, some whips, and others chains, in
their hands, and by men provided with gongs. At intervals the
latter beat their gongs loudly, to announce the near approach of
the great man who is passing through the city. The lictors
also, at frequent intervals, and especially when passing through
the gates of a city, call out, " Let all men keep silence." The
busy hum which arises from the crowded mart is accordingly
succeeded, for the time being, by a deathlike stillness. The
custom reminds one of a similar practice in ancient Egypt.
In the history of Joseph we read (Gen. xli. 43) that when
Pharaoh had exalted that remarkable man to rule as a vice-
roy over the people of Egypt, a herald went before him as
he passed along tlie crowded streets, and cried aloud, " Bow the
knee." In the procession which accompanies an officer of the
fifth, sixth, or seventh rank, when he passes in his sedan-chair
through the streets of a city, there are borne one blue silk
umbrella, one fan, two white rods of ofiice, two wooden
boards on which in gold are the characters Shuk and Tsing,
and four banners. The procession is lieaded by two lictors.
Officers of the eighth and ninth ranks are entitled to one
umbrella, and two rods of office. The procession is headed by
two lictors, each of whom carries in his hand a bamboo rod.

A military officer of the first rank has for his insignia, two
umbrellas ; two fans ; two barmers on each of which are figures
of tigers with wings ; two staves each of which is surmounted
with a clenched fist ; two swords, the hilt of eacli of wliicli is orna-
mented with the head of an animal in brass ; two swords, each
of which resembles in form the feather of a wild goose ; two red
boards on which in gold are the characters Shuk and Tsing ;
four spears, and eight green banners, to the top of each of which
a streamer is attached. The procession is headed by two lictors,
each of whom carries in his hand a bamboo, and by two gong-
men. A military officer of the second rank and of the class
Ching, has two battle-axes instead of the staves with the clenched
fist ; and he is not entitled to display the two swords which are
shaped like the feather of a wild goose. The immber of spears

374 * CHINA. ' [chap.

is also reduced to two in this procession. Similar points of
difference mark other gradations of military rank. The state
sedan-chair of each military officer is preceded and followed by
equerries and pedestrians, varying in number.

It is worthy of remark that the practice of carrying fans in
official processions, as insignia of honour and power, is of great
antiquity, and in early ages the custom was not confined to
China alone. On the monuments of ancient Egypt are to be
found representations of fans carried on the tops of long poles,
just as to-day in China, before the mighty of the land.

There is little to be said about the retinue which accompanies
the sedan-chairs of private individuals. A private gentleman
or wealthy citizen is borne in his chair by four or two men, and
is followed by four or two livery servants on foot ; and his wife
is borne in a chair by four or two men, and is followed by two
or one female servant on foot.

The style and furnishing of sedan-chairs is also regulated by
the sumptuary laws of China. The state sedan-chair of an
official, whether civil or military, of all ranks, must be
covered with green cloth. The fringe which is made to
skirt the outside of the roof of tlie chair, and the curtains for
the windows, must also be green. For the first three ranks, the
ends of the poles or shafts may be tipped with brass moulded in
the form of dragons' heads. For the fourth and fifth ranks, the
ends of the poles may be tipped with brass moulded in the form
of lions' heads. The ends of the poles of the sedan-chair of an
official of any of the four remaining ranks, may be tipped with
brass on which is engraven in relief representations of the
clouds. On the top of each of the chairs in question is to be
fixed a globe or ball of block tin. Blue cloth is to be used for
the chair of a private gentleman, and the ends of the poles must
be tipped with plain ferules of brass. Sedan-chairs, used by
persons in the humbler walks of life, must be co-\^ered with
cloth of a dark colour, and the ends of the poles or shafts
perfectly plain.

In all Chinese cities there are public sedan-chair stands, at
which chairs are let out on hire by the hour or day. In some parts
of the empire, the proprietors have to pay a tax. I found this

XV.] STATE UMBRELLAS. 375

to be the case in Nankin and llaiig-cliow, but it is certainly not
so in the southern cities of China with m hich I am acquainted.
Upon each taxed sedan-chair the name of the proprietor, and of
the street in which he resides is painted in large Chinese cha-
racters. At Nankin, aged and infirm persons in the lower walks
of life are borne from place to place in baskets, and at Eching I
saw a respectable youth of twelve years of age being conveyed in
this manner. Of the style and form of carts or carriages, a de-
scription will be found in anotlier chapter. I may say here that
the wheels of a cart or carriage of a man of rank, are placed not
under the centre of, but at the extreme end of the cart. On the
sedan-chairs and carts used by officials and people, there may not
be painted or embroidered figures of dragons, or phoenixes, or
indeed, representations of any imperial emblems.

This chapter would be incomplete without some special notice
of state umbrellas. These are a conspicuous feature of Chinese
processions. On the top of a state umbrella of a gentleman of
the first or second rank must be the figure of a gourd, made of
block tin. For the third and fourth ranks, the gourd must be
made of wood and painted red. An official or gentleman of the
fifth rank, displays a blue cloth umbrella with a gourd made of
wood and painted red. In the case of the first four ranks, the
umbrella must have three flounces ; those who are of lower rank
being only entitled to two flounces. It is interesting to observe
that in other Eastern countries the umbrella has also its place
among the insignia of high rank. It was, and is still, if I mis-
take not, one of the emblems of royalty and power throughout
India, Persia, Arabia and other Asiatic countries, and in that
portion of the great continent of Africa which is inhabited by
the followers of the false prophet of Mecca. At the time Eome
was giving laM's to the world, it was used by the sovereigns of
Egypt, since Mark Antony is censured for having united the
eagles of Eome with the state umbrellas of the unfortunate
Cleopatra.

" luterque signa (tnrpe !) niilitiaria
Sol aspicit cornopeum."

The masses are not allowed to use silk or cloth umbrellas
only those made of oil paper. In this, as well as in other respects

376 CHINA. [chap. xv.

the sumptuary laws are disregarded, for it is not at all unusual
to meet people in the streets of a Chinese city carrying either
silk or cloth umbrellas. Eed silk umbrellas are occasionally
presented by the people to distinguished officials.

From umbrellas to walking-sticks is a much greater transition
in China than in our own country ; but this has not prevented
sumptuary legislators dealing with them. According to some
Chinese authors, they were first used as far back as 2357 B.C.,
and, according to others, were introduced during the reign of
Woo-wing of the Chow dynasty, who flourished 1122 B.C. That
walking-sticks were used during the reign of Woo-wing, appears
from a reference made to a prince named Chow-Koong, who
used one in punishing an act of rudeness on the part of his son.
iJuring that period the use of walking-sticks was common to all
classes of society. For some reason, however, their use was even-
tually restricted to men who were fifty years of age and upwards.
The law, however, w^as very arbitrary, and prohibited men who
were between fifty and sixty years of age from using their walking-
sticks except when walking on their own premises ! Those who
"were between sixty and seventy years of age were allowed to
use them when walking through the towns and villages in which
they resided, and only those upwards of eighty w^ere at liberty
to use them wherever they went. During the after- Liang dynasty,
A.D. 903, a law winch allowed all aged and infirm persons to use
walking-sticks was established. I may remark, in conclusion,
that precepts not dissimilar to some contained in the code of
sumptuary laws framed by Zaleucus, the famous legislator of
Locris, are at this very time observed in China. For example,
it is enacted that no respectable spinster of the lower orders of
society shall wear apparel similar to that which is worn by ladies
of rank and fashion. Those, how^ever, who are not respectable
may do so, as in Locris a ruffian might wear the gold ring which
was denied to the honest man ; and in China all prostitutes who
reside in cities and towns, wear gold bracelets and embroidered
dresses, and paint tlieir faces, like virtuous women of the upper
classes.

CHAPTEE XVI.

AMUSEMENTS AND SPORTS.

The Chinese appear to appreciate the drama quite as much as
the more civilized nations of Europe, Their dramatic enter-
tainments appear to he connected in many instances with their
idolatrous worship, and in front of the principal temples there
are permanent stages upon which the plays are performed at
festivals. It is not unusual for sick persons to vow in the
presence of certain idols that, should their lives be spared, they
will give dramatic entertainments in honour of these deities.
To such entertainments the people are of course admitted
gratuitously; but no seats are provided for them. There are
societies or companies, however, who hire actors and give
theatrical representations both to amuse the masses and to
make money. Each society must include one or two persons
who have taken literary degrees, and each is held responsible
for the peace and good order of the spectators. Stage plays are
generally acted in large tents, as among the ancient Eomans.
These tents, made of large bamboo frames covered with matting,
are in the form of squares. Three sides of the square are
occupied by rows of benches for the spectators. Behind these,
immediately in front of the stage, there is a gallery for ladies.
There are different classes of seats, and the prices of admission
vary accordingly, some of the benches having a rest for the
back, and others having none. As theatres are made of bamboo
or matting, there is great danger from the displays of fire-
crackers, which sometimes take place during a performance,

378 CHINA. [chap.

as representations of tliimder and lightning. In 1844, a
large theatre in the vicinity of the literary chancellor's yamun
at Canton, caught fire, and, as it was densely crowded with
spectators, upwards of two thousand persons perislied. Their
charred hones were afterwards gathered together and buried
in a common grave beyond the north-east gate of the city. A
similar accident occurred in a small theatre at Whampoa, in
1853, when thirty persons, chiefly women with small feet,
perished.

In every large town there are several companies of actors,
each consisting of ten, twenty, or a hundred persons. Though
they afford much gratification to the people, actors are ranked
so low in the social scale, that their children are not allowed to
present themselves for literary distinctions, which, of course,
prevents them ever attaining to any high position in the state.
"When boys, they are bought by the conductors of companies
and sent to dramatic schools, where they are carefully instructed
in all the mysteries of their art. They are very harshly treated
at these seminaries, and disobedience is visited with very severe
punishment. Should a refractory youth die under the hands of
a master, no notice whatever is taken by those whose duty it is
to administer justice. A Chinese parent named Lee once called
uj^on me, to ask me to give advice to his son, who, much against
his father's wish, was bent on selling himself to the manager of
a company. The youth, with whom I had two or three inter-
views, was deaf to all entreaties, and eventually entered a
dramatic school, where I afterwards learned he was very cruelly
treated by the man to whom he had deliberately sold himself
for a small sum . On visiting the school, I found him engaged
in learning the use of the sword and spear, his instructor having
settled that the role of a soldier suited him best. The usual
period of instruction is one year, at the close of which the
youths are expected to take part in any plays which may
be performed. They are regarded by their purchasers as little
better than beasts of burden, and receive for their services
only food and clothing. Their period of servitude, however,
lasts only for six years, after which they may claim their dis-
charge. If sufficiently influential, they form companies of their .

XVI.] ACTORS AND PLAYS. 379

own ; otherwise, they engage themselves to managers at a toler-
ably remunerative salary. As a rule, women are not allowed to
appear on the stage. Female parts are well sustained by men,
and their presence does not seem required. There are, how-
ever, schools in which females, generally of dissolute habits, are
instructed for the stage.

The usual hire for a company of players is from twenty to
one hundred dollars a-day. They are frequently rewarded during
the performance of a play by presents of food, such as roast
pigs, or offerings of money. I have seen a present of roast pigs
carried across the stage by the servants of the donor at the very
time the most pathetic part of a play was being performed.
The gifts are no sooner received than one of the performers not
engaged in the play attires himself as a deity, and, coming
before the audience with a graceful salutation, unfolds a scroll
with an inscription in large characters expressive of the thanks
of the company for the presents received. These substantial
expressions of approbation may remind the reader of the corol-
larium, or reward given to actors amongst the ancient Eomans.

The plays which appear to be the most popular, are those
which relate to the history of ancient times, for, like most of
the plays of the immortal Shakespere, the productions of the
dramatic writers of China are in a great measure historical.
The leading principles inculcated are those of loyalty to the
throne, filial piety, and entire devotion to the gods of the land.
Generally they exalt virtue and condemn vice. AVhat refers to
the vices of the age is clothed in very unchaste language, and
the acting is attended with coarse and sometimes indecent gesti-
culation. Performances are accompanied by vocal and instru-
mental music, the musicians being arranged on the background
of the stage. There is no curtain, and the movements of the
scene-shifters are witnessed by the spectators. The dresses of
the actors are generally of the most elegant and costly descrip-
tion, especially in the theatrical companies of the southern
provinces.

In 1861, at Whanipoa I witnessed a play the plot of which
was laid in the Sung dynasty, that is, about five hundred years
ago. Its purport was to set before the minds of the people the

380 CHINA. [chap.

great advantages and blessings which attend the exercise of
filial piety, an addiction to literary pursuits, and entire devo-
tion to the gods. Let me give the following rdsume of the
play : — A youth, named Laee ]\Iung-ching, though born in a
humble station in life, was conspicuous alike for his filial piety
and studious habits. "When his parents were old and no longer
able to labour for the common necessaries of life, he resorted
daily to a Buddhist monastery, to beg the crumbs which fell
from the table of the monks. The monks, at last growing
weary of his repeated importunities, told him to discontinue his
visits, and presented him with a small sum of money as a part-
ing gift. With this he purchased a small quantity of rice and a
bundle of firewood. On his way home he was attacked by a
large dog, and in his terror dropped the rice, which was quickly
devoured by some fowls. Upon his return home, he related
his disaster to his parents, who at the time were perishing with
hunger. Eventually they died of starvation, and, in order to
obtain funds for the decent interment of their remains, the son
was constrained to sell his wife. As he sallied forth with her
having this object in view, an aged man chanced to pass that
way, whom he accosted. The old man entered into conver-
sation with him, and, hearing his tale, agreed to become the
purchaser of his wife. Returning home with her newly-acquired
husband, the bride did not dream of the good fortune which
was about to befall her former lord. But his fihal piety, and
the numerous though very small pecuniary offerings which
his parents had made in their lifetime to funds established for
the repair and erection of temples, were not forgotten by the
eods. In the course of a conversation the aged man informed
her that he was formerly the head of the Buddhist priest-
hood, and that he resided in that capacity, for many years, in a
temple which had been erected and endowed by the ancestors
of the very man whose vvife she had recently been. These words
were no sooner uttered, than he ascended towards the heavens,
passing out of sight. The poor woman was greatly alarmed,
and concluded that the person with whom she had been con-
versing was an angel. She retraced her steps, and had not gone
far, before she met her sorrowing husband. He was surprised

xvi.] ACTOPiS AND PLAYS. 381

at her unexpected return, and still more so when she related
what she had just witnessed. They resolved, however, to hasten
home, to expend the money they had acquired, in the due
celebration of the obsequies of their parents. When they had
reached the threshold of their cottage, they found their parents
restored to life, and surrounded by every comfort. Their good
fortune did not stop here. Possessing great abilities, the young
man soon made himself master of the classics, and eventually
succeeded in attaining the highest literary distinctions, and the
most important political positions of the empire.

Chinese plays are of great length, and not unfrequently take
up three days and nights in acting. Besides theatrical repre-
sentations on the part of professional performers, families of re-
spectability frequently amuse themselves by private theatricals.
Amateur companies are formed by young gentlemen, many of
whom display great dramatic power. These entertainments
take place in the large family residences, and are seldom wit-
nessed by Europeans, excepting, of course, by those who have
succeeded in becoming well acquainted with native families of
wealth and respectability.

With the view of preventing actors from performing obscene
plays in Canton, the following edict was issued by Wong, the
Provincial Treasurer : —

" I, Wong, Provincial Treasurer, hear that the people of
Canton are exceedingly fond of dramatic representations. Why ?
Because they deem it necessary when worshipping the gods to
render them all honour by having dramatic representations.
Theatres are, therefore, a source of much rejoicing to the people,
and to prevent such things there are of course no laws. It is,
however, very necessary that plays should be performed which
have a tendency to cause men to worship the gods, to make
them true and faithful to the throne, and dutiful to their parents.
To represent on the stage lewd plays, is the surest way to destroy
morality. jNIany of the gentry are greatly shocked to find that
such plays are not unfrequently performed, and they at the same
time state, that in the performance of such plays, actresses
usually take parts. They have, therefore, called upon me to
put a stop to such obscenities. I therefore command all
managers of theatres to take care that, in future, such abomina-
tions be not tolerated. I inform them further that should they

382 CHINA. [chap.

neglect to carry out my views I shall not only apprehend but
severely punish them, Tung-chee, 8th year, 7th day, 10th
month."

Another kind of amusement known to the Chinese, which
may be mentioned in this connection, is marionettes. Puppet-
shows are generally held in front of temples in honour of god-
desses, and are attended, as a rule, by females only. Sometimes
they take place in the houses of the gentry, for the especial
gratification of the female members of the household. I have
seen an historical play well sustained by the expert employ-
ment of such images, the men behind the scenes giving the
dialogue.

I have observed that such shows are generally attended by
females only. I may mention an exception to this rule. At
Yong-mak in the district of Heong-shan, I attended a represen-
tation of this kind at which the spectators were all men. Tt
was given in honour of the god of the markets. A friend
accompanied me, and we took up our position at the end of the
theatre, immediately opposite the stage. 'No sooner had the
news of our presence spread, than all the spectators turned
their backs upon the performance, and gazed with wonder on
the two barbarians Avho had joined them. A somewhat similar
scene occurred when, in 1862, I visited the town of Loong-keng,
a small country town at the extreme point of the long and
mountainous district of Tsung-fa. Two travelling companions
and myself entered the town together. We w^ere much sur-
prised at the emptiness of the streets, and found on inquiry
that all the inhabitants were at the play. AVe had not ridden
far through the streets, when we found ourselves in sight of the
theatre. The news of our arrival spread, and the spectators at
once left the delights of dramatic fiction to gaze upon a startling
novelty in real life. "VVe were the first Europeans the inhabit-
ants had ever seen, and literally we proved as "good as a
show."

At Soo-Chow, I saw a puppet-show, the marionettes in which
were exceedingly small. The figures were set in motion by
strings from above the stage, the others I have described being
worked from behind the scenes. Whilst the show was going on,

XVI.] PUPPET-SHOWS, ETC. 383

an incessant clamour was kept np by beating gongs. A puppet
representing a Chinese soldier armed with a shield and sword,
was made to go through the sword exercise with admirable
precision, and a spearman was made to perform his evolutions
with equal success. A contest eventually took place between
these warriors, and it was so well sustained that the spec-
tators became quite excited. A^ictory after a severe tussle,
fell to the spearman. Another puppet was made to represent
an old fisherman walking along the sea-beach in pursuit of a
stranded fish. The fisherman, who was provided with a basket,
made frequent ineffectual endeavours to place it over the sprawl-
ing fish. The fish at last escaped into the water, and the fisher-
man, ignorant of the fact, put his hand into the basket, and
groped for his missing prey. The cleverness with which the
movements of the fisherman were executed excited great
applause.

The musical attainments of the people are at such a low ebb
that I had almost written there are no concerts in China. Vocal
and instrumental entertainments, however, are given at the
celebration of the natal anniversaries of several of the minor
deities. These entertainments, which are held in mat houses
erected in front of the temples, succeed each other during three
consecutive days and nights, and appear to afford great delight
to large audiences. The Chinese enliven their summer and
winter evenings by song. Towards the close of the day,
numbers of blind women, neatly dressed, and guided by aged
women, may be seen traversing the streets. They are professional
singers, and are invited into the houses and shops of the citizens,
where, for small sums, they will sing nearly the whole night long.
As artificers of all kinds are very industrious, and often work
up to a late hour, their employers sometimes call these women
into their shops to amuse them. I have seen a number of
cobblers diligently plying their task, with a singing woman
seated in the corner of the shop lightening their labour by
her songs.

Pyrotechnic displays aie very popular. The fireworks consist
of Catherine wheels, burning moons, fiery flowers, and bright

384 CHINA. [chap.

stars. Graceful pagodas are also outlined, and, by means of
puppets, scenes are represented in wliicli emperors hold levees
officials preside over courts of justice, generals review troops,
and ladies lounge in garden bowers.

Conjurors are a tolerably numerous class, and they perform
many of the tricks with which the fraternity in Europe seek to
amuse their audiences. In my travels I met occasionally with
strolling gymnasts, whose performances equalled those of the
kind which are common in our own country. One of the most
remarkable of these performers threw a bamboo pole thirty feet
long and decorated with small banners, into the air, caught it
upon his head, chest, shoulders, or hands, and balanced it for a
considerable time with the greatest ease. Before receiving it on
his head he put on a thickly padded cap. At Pekin, I saw
young men, evidently of great strength, amusing themselves by
throwing a large stone into the air, and catching it as it fell by
a ring which was attached to it. The feat was performed with
much ease and grace. Others, also for their own amusement,
threw an earthenware vase at each other, the person at whom it
was thrown catching it on his elbow, or shoulder, or head. At
Hankow, I saw a female with remarkably small feet, going
through a tight-rope performance. With a balancing pole in
her hands, she executed a graceful dance on the rope, amid
the clanging of cymbals and beating of gongs. At Tien-tsin I was
amused by a singular procession of children on stilts. The
children were beating tom-toms, and showed great ease and
grace in their movements. Two men who headed the procession
beating tom-toms solicited alms from the passers-by. At Pekin,
I engaged the services of a ventriloquist, who, with great skill,
represented a conversation between a farmer and his wife on
the one hand, and their cow-herd, swine-herd, and dairy-maid
on the other. The lowing of the oxen and the grunting of the
swine were also admirably rendered. Peep-shows are to be met
with in almost every town. In Canton and other southern
cities, they are very small ; in the central provinces they are very
large, such shows being provided with ten or fifteen large circu-
lar peep-holes. Those which I saw at Hankow and Soo-Chow

XVI.] GA:\IBLING. 385

were so large as to resemble tents of drill. Obscene pictures
are, it is said, exhibited in these shows.

No amusement is more popular among tlie Chinese than
gambling. The inordinate love of play is so deeply rooted in
the breasts of the people that men and women of all classes
of society, and of almost all ages, are gamblers. The gaming-
houses are numerous everywhere, and are thronged with players
from an early hour in the morning until a late hour in the
evening. Even frait-stalls are turned into gaming tables, and
it is scarcely possible to pass one of them without finding it
surrounded by boys of tender age, gambling for its tempting
stores. The boys cannot resist a throw of the dice, although
they know that the chances are greatly in favour of the
fruiterer.

Gambling is, of course, forbidden by law. It is tolerated,
however, by the depraved rulers of the people, who derive,
monthly, considerable sums of money from this source. Indeed
the Namhoi and Pun-Yu magistrates at Canton have actually
converted some spare rooms near the outer gates of their
respective yamuns into gaming-houses. AVhen on a visit to the
district cities of Loong-moon and Tsung-Sheng, I observed that
the rulers of these cities had resorted to a similar device. In
general, however, gaming-houses are in back or side streets, as
the more respectable and wealthy tradespeople object to such
establishments in their neighbourhood. In 1861, all the shop-
keepers living in the street called Su-shee-Kai, at Canton, closed
their shops, and refused to open them uiitil the governor-general
of the province, whom they had memorialized on the subject,
promised to issue an order directing the district ruler to close a
gaming-house wdiich he had permitted to be opened in the street.
I remember a similar circumstance in a street at Houam, named
N'goo-chow-Kai. When on a visit to the prefectoral city of
Eng-chow-Foo, or Woo-chow-Foo, in the province of Kw^ang-si,
I found that the objection of the citizens to gaming-houses
was so strong that they had succeeded in prevailing upon the
prefect to insist on all such establishments being upon the
water. Several large chops, resembling floating houses, were at
anchor in the river for the purpose. The objection to gaming-

VOL. I. c G

386 CHINA. ■ [chap.

houses on tlic part of wealthy tradesmen, does not arise
from the fact that they do not gamble themselves, but from a
fear lest a number of needy and abandoned persons should
assemble in such establishments, and plunder the neighbouring-
shops.

Gaming-houses are of various kinds. Those which are called
Tan-Koon are conducted by a joint-stock company, consisting
either of ten or twenty partners. Such houses consist of two
apartments. In the first of these is a high table, on the centre
of which is placed a small square board. The four sides of the
board are marked respectively one, two, three, and four. For
the game played in this apartment the presence of three of the
partners is necessary. The first is called the Tan-Koon or
the croupier ; the second the Tai-N'gan, or shroff, who sits by the
side of the former, with his tables, scales, and money drawers, to
examine and weigh the money which may be staked ; and the
third, the Ho-Koon, who stands by the table, keeps account of
the game, and pays over the stakes to the rightful winners. The
gamblers stand round the high table, and the Tan-Koon, or
croupier, places a handful of cash on it before him. Over the
lieap he immediately places a tin cover, so that the gamblers
cannot calculate the exact number of the cash. They are now
called upon to place their stakes at any of the sides of the
square board in the centre. When this has been done, the Tan-
Koon removes the cover, and, using a thin ivory rod a foot long,
proceeds to lessen his heap by drawing awa}' four cash at a time.
Should one cash remain, the gambler who placed his stake on the
side of the small square board which is marked one is declared
the winner. If two cash remain, he saves his stake ; and in the
case of three remaining he is allowed the same jprivilege. If,
however, four cash remain, he loses his stake. This game is
called Ching-tow, and the gambler, as the reader will perceive,
has one chance of winning, two of retaining his stake, and one
of losing it.

A second game played at the same table is called Nim. At
this game the gambler has one chance of winning double the
amount of his stake ; two chances of losing it, and one of
retaining it. Should he place his stake on the side of the board

xv:.] GAMBLING. 387

marked two, and two cash remains upon tlie Tan-Koon removini;-
his heap hy four at a time, his winnings are double the
amount of his stake. If three cash remain of the Tan-Koon's
heap, the gambler retains his stake ; if either one or four remain,
he loses. A third game played at this table is called Fan. In
it the gambler has one chance of winning three times the amount
of his stake, and three chances of losing it. A fourth game at
this table is called Kok. The rule observed in it, is to place
the stake at one of the corners of the board, that is, between any
two of the numbers. Should the croupier's remainder correspond
to either of the numbers between which the stake is placed,
the gambler v/ins a sum equal to his stake. Should the re-
mainder correspond to one of the other two numbers, he loses.

In the inner apartment of these establishments the stakes are
all in silver coin, whereas in the ante-chamber cash only — from
fifty up to several hundreds — are played for. Three partners are
also required to conduct the games in the inner room. As the
stakes are very heavy, they are not placed on the table, lest tlie
vagabonds who are in the habit of resorting to the first apartment
in large numbers should rush in and sweep them away. It is
customary, therefore, to use Chinese playing cards to distinguish
the gamblers ; also, corresponding cards from another pack to
represent their stakes. The stakes are carefully noted down by
the Ho-Koon, to avoid disputes. In spite of this, disputes are
not uncommon, and I may add that the only stand-up fight
which I ever witnessed during my long residence in China,
occurred at the door of a gaming-house at Pit-kong, between the
keeper of it and a disappointed speculator.

The proprietors of these gaming-houses realize large sums of
money, and the gamblers are frequently ruined, and, driven into
desperate courses, often end their days in prison. Sometimes
they lose not only aU their money, but the clothes they are
wearing. On one occasion, passing the door of a gambling-house
near the temple of the Five Genii, at Canton, I heard a great
noise. Entering the establishment to ascertain the cause I found
the conductors of the games actually engaged in stripping
the clothes off a man who had staked and lost them. The

c c 2

388 CHINA. [chap.

unfortunate man was then dressed in gunny -bags ^ and turned
into the street.

Seven per cent, of the gamblers' winnings go to the proprietors
to defray the expenses, which are very great in consequence of
the large monthly sums paid to the mandarins.

Sometimes females of bad character conduct gaming establish-
ments. When detected they are put down by the strong arm of
the law.

Another mode of gambling is that called Koo-yan or " the
Ancients." It is also known under the name of " Flowery
Characters." This game is said to have originated in the de-
partment of Chun-chow, and was introduced into Canton in
the twenty-eighth year of the reign of Taou-kwang. By the
" ancients " is meant a number of names and surnames by
Avhich thirty-six personages of former times were known and
recognized. These names are divided into nine different classes,
as follows : —

I. The names of four men who attained the highest literary
distinctions.

In a former state of existence, these men were respec-
tively, a fish, a white goose, a white snail, and a
peacock.

J I. The names of five distinguished military officers.

These men were once, respectively, a worm, a rabbit, a
pig, a tiger, and a cow.

III. The names of seven successful merchants.

These men were once, respectively, a flying dragon, a
white dog, a white horse, an elephant, a wild cat, and
a wasp.

IV. The names of four persons who were conspicuous for
their uninterrupted happiness on earth.

These were once, respectively, a frog, an eagle, a monkey,
and a dragon.

V. The names of four females.

These were once, respectively, a butterfly, a precious stone,
a white swallow, and a pigeon.

^ Gunny is a strong coarse kind of sacking.— [Ed.]

XVI.] CA.MBLIXa. 38'J

YI. The names of five bef^jzars.

DO

These were once, respectively, a prawn, a snake, a fish, a
deer, and a sheep.
VII. The names of four Buddhist priests.

These were once, respectively, a tortoise, a hen, an elk,
and a calf.
YIII. The names of two Taouist priests.

These were once, respectively, a white egi-et and a yellow
streaked cat.
IX. The name of a Buddhist nun who was once a fox.
The game is played as follows. The gambling company select
a person who has an aptitude for composing enigmas, to whom
they pay a veiy large salary. New enigmas are constantly wanted,
as the houses Mhere this game is played are open twice daily,
namely, at 7 a.m., and again at 8 r.M. Each enigma is supposed
to have a refei'ence to one of the creatures enumerated, whether
beast, bird, fish, reptile, or insect. So soon as an enigma is com-
posed, it is printed, and several thousand copies are sold to the
people.. The sale of these enigmas must prove in itself a consider-
able source of revenue. When a purchaser of one of them thinks
he has found out the creature to which it refers, he writes his
answer on a sheet of paper. At the hour appointed he hastens
to the gaming-house, generally a large hall, where he presents
his answer, and the sum of money which he is prepared to stake,
to a secretary. AYhen all the answers and stakes have been
received, the managers of the establishment retire to an inner
chamber, where they examine the answers and count the stakes.
The secretary records the names of those who have answered
correctly, while his partners wrap up the various sums of money
wliich the successful conjecturers have won. All this time there
is suspended from the roof of the chamber Mhere the speculators
are assembled, a scroll folded up, and containing a picture of the
creature to which the enigma alludes. AVhen the winners' stakes
have been prepared for them, the secretary enters tlio liall and
unfolds this scroll. So soon as the picture is seen, it is greeted
with a loud shout of exultation from the successful few, and
with murmurs of discontent from the many who liave guessed
wrong. It is hardly necessary to add that the managers take

.^90 CHINA. [CHAP.

c.ire to provide riddles of sucli au ambiguous character, that the
majority are always wrong in their conjectures. The amount
staked in these places is limited.

Ladies lose large sums of money at such establishments. As
they are not allowed to appear in public, they are generally
represented at them by their female slaves or servants.

Large sums are daily lost by men, women, and children of all
classes, in a game called Ta-pak-up-pu, or "strike the white
dove." A company is formed, consisting of fifty partners having
equal shares. One is selected to act as au overseer, and, for
I'easons wliich will presently appear, he is made to live in strict
retirement. A slieet of paper on which eighty Chinese cliaracters,
lespectively signifying heaven, earth, sun, moon, stars, &c., is
given to him With this sheet he enters a private apartment,
and remains there without communicating with any one for
several hours, during which he marks twenty of the characters
with a vermilion pencil. The sheet is then deposited in a box,
which is at once carefully locked. Thousands of sheets of paper
containing eighty similar characters, are then sold to the public.
The purchasers mark ten of the eighty, and take tlieir papers
next morning to the gaming establishment to have them com-
pared with that marked by the overseer. ]3efore they give them
up, they make copies of them, which they retain. When all the
papers have been received, the box which contains the overseer's
paper, and which stands conspicuous on a table, is unlocked. The
gambler's papers are then compared with the overseer's paper. If
a gambler has marked only four of the characters selected by the
overseer, he receives nothing. If he has marked five of them, he
receives seven cash ; if six, seventy cash ; if eight, seven dollars ;
and if ten, fifteen dollars. A person wishing to gamble can buy
as many as three hundred copies of the gambling sheet, but he
nmst mark them all alike. There are never more than two such
establishments in large cities such as Canton, and the winnings
of the firms conducting them must be very great, to judge from
the number of sheets sold daily.

In cities, there are also houses in which card-playing for
very high stakes takes place both by day and night. Many
persons are there brought to ruin. To elude the vifnlance

<;f tliG authorities these estaljlisluuents are iiidic or less |n-iv!itc, ;
Ijut card-players experience little or no dillicuity in findin;^ out,
such haunts of vice. A private residence was used lor llic
])urpose in the neighbourlioud of ;i, f'hiiiesi; house in wliicli I
j'esided for six years, i was induccid to visit it on owe oi;(;;isioii,
and found in it gentlemen card-players with sov.iid r(^iiial(i
coiiipaiiio)is. The latter were not engaged in the gaine, ;i,s it is
iiltogcither contraiy to Cantonese notions of propriety that
worrifju should ]jlay cards with nien. In the cities (jf Nankin
;Mid Katu-j)00-sheng, I. saw to my astonishment ni'ii and wonn n
])laying together, and on making inquiries 1 found that a similar
i-nstom jjrevails at Shanghai. Cards are a vary jiopular amusC'
ment with all classes.

A mode of gandjling by means of three thin short rods, lik't;
ordinary chop-sticks, is sometimes practised. Tin; gandder
holds the three rods in his right liand, taking eai<; t(j conceal
tliem at one end 1;y the compression of his }>alm. Jle has
pi'eviously attached a sum of money to one of the sticks. His
:i,ntagonist places an equal sum of mon(;y on the (jjjposite
(;nd of one of the rods; and, should he ])l;u;e it on iIk; r(jd
to which the person liolding the stick's lias ii,Lt;i,cli(^d his slak(;,
he wins it.

Gamhling hy means of oranges is also greatly pr;i,ctised hy
the Cantonese. This takes ])lace, as a rule, at fiuit-stalls, hut
il. is practised in ])rivate houses. A man hets that fin orange
contains a di^linitj; niiniher of ]'ips. IIjc orange is Uh-m cut. into
]iieces and the pij»s are counted. At a fruit-slidi Iht; finilcrer
pays five cash to a lucky guesser for each cash he m;i,y have
slaked. An nid'ortunate speculator pays the v;diie ol' the orange,
and in addition, five cash for each cash he may have staked.
At fruit-stalls it is also usual to gandjle for sticks of sugar-
cane. The cane is placed in a perpendicular position, and he
who succeeds in cutting it asunder from the top to ihf. hoMoni
with a sharp-edged knife, wins the cane IVom the fi ulLoer.
Should he fail, the fruiterer retains his sugar-cane, iuid ^^•ins
)iiore than its value in money.

Gamhling hy means of a joint of meat, or pork, or a fish,
is a very common patstime in the winter season. The joint or

392 CHINA. [chap.

tisli is suspended from the top of a long pole, and bets are
made as to its weight. At Tien-tsin it is very common to
gamble for viands and fruits. The butclier, or poulterer, or
fruiterer, provides himself with a long bamboo tube, into which
he places several small wooden rods, some with a number or
mark on them. Should the speculator draw a rod on which
there is no number he loses his stake. Should he draw a rod on
which a number is marked he receives a corresponding prize.

In the summer months, cricket-fighting is a very popular
sport in the southern provinces. These insects are found in
large numbers on the hills there, and men capture them by
night. For this purpose they take with them Fo-lam or fire-
baskets. These are made of iron rods, and during the time
they are being used, a fire of fir or cedar wood is kept burning
in them. Sometimes the cricket-hunters drive the insects out of
their holes by pouring in water on them. Sometimes they
endeavour to entice them from the nest by placing a fruit
called " dragon's eyes " at its entrance. Crickets which chirp
loudly are regarded as the best fighters. The crickets when
captured are kept singly in earthenware pots, at the bottom of
which is a small quantity of fine mould, and a very small cup
containing a few drops of water for the insects to drink out oi
and bathe in. Their food consists of two kinds of fish, called
Man-yu and Kut-yu. Insects called Loo-kum-chung, Tun-tsit-
chung and Pin-tam-chung are occasionally given to them. They
get honey to strengthen them, and other items of their diet are
boiled chestnuts and boiled rice. For two hours every night
a female cricket is placed in the pot with the male. Smoke is
supposed to be injurious to their health, and the rooms in
which they are kept must be perfectly free from it. A charm
or mystic scroll to avert evil influences, is sometimes placed on
the crickets' pot. If they are sick from overeating, red insects
called Hun-chung are given them. If the sickness arises from
cold, they get mosquitoes ; if from heat, shoots of the green
pea plant. Chuk-tip . or bamboo butterflies are given for
difficulty in breathing.

At the cricket-pit, which the Chinese call Lip, the insects are
matched according to size, weight, and colour. The stakes are

XVI.] ciiirKKT-FuiirriXi;. ■'/r.)

ill some cases very large. It is, however, generally supposed by
the government that they consist of presents of sweet cakes.
A cricket which wins many Adctories is called Shou-lip or
conquering cricket, and when it dies it is placed in a small
silver coffin and buried. The owner believes that the honourable
interment brings him good luck, and that o-ood fiuhting crickets
will be found next year in the neighbourhood where the cricket
lies buried.

The places most notorious for cricket-fighting are Fa-tee, in
the immediate vicinity of Canton, and Cha-pee, near Whanipoa.
At these places there are extensive mat sheds divided into
several compartments. In each compartment there is a table
M'ith a small tub on it in which the crickets fight. The sum of
money staked on the contest is lodged with a committee, who
deduct ten per cent, and hand over the balance to the person
M'hose cricket has won. He is also presented with a roast pig,
a piece of silk, and a gilded ornament resembling a bouquet of
tiowers. This decoration is placed by the winner, either on the
ancestral altar of his house or on a shrine in honour of Kwan-te.
In order that betting men may be made acquainted with the
merits of the crickets matched against each other, a placard is
posted on the sides of the building setting forth the various
stakes won by each cricket. The excitement manifested at these
matches is very great, and considerable sums of money change
liands. Crickets which display great fighting powers are not
unfrequently sold for large sums.

During the winter months quail-fighting is a favourite si^ort.
The pits in which these birds fight are like the cock-pits once
only too popular in England. Great pains are bestowed upon
the quails by those who train them. The trainer first destroys
the tympanum of the bird's ear by blowing upon it through a
small tube. This is to make it deaf and insensible to the
noise caused by the spectators when witnessing a well-contested
struggle. The bird is washed daily in warm water to make it
lean and active. The quail pits are generally very small. They
and provided with two or three tiers of galleries, in which the
spectators have to stand in a stooping posture. In the centre (if
the pit, on a table, is a tub with low sieles, into which the quails

394 CHIXA. [chap.

are put. Before the struggle begins, the birds, one after another
are placed on the table, to give the spectators an opportunity of
judging of their respective merits. Two birds are placed, one in
a blue and the other in a yellow bag. The spectators are
then called upon to make their bets, which are carefully regis-
tered by a secretary. The stakes are placed in the hands of an
umpire, who hands them over to the winner w^hen victory has
been declared. "Whenever the birds find themselves facing each
other in the tub, a fierce encounter ensues. The fight, however,
does not last many minutes, the vanquished invariably seeking
safety in flight.

The Pan-Kow, or wild pigeon, the Chu-Shee-Gha, and the
Wa-mee are also kept for fighting. Contests between these
birds take place not so much in public pits, as in the dwelling-
liouses of the more respectable cicizens, and large sums of money
often change hands over them.

The Chu-Shee-Cha is so-called in consequence of its natural
propensity to feed upon the dung of pigs. Great pains are
bestowed upon fighting birds by their owners to prepare them for
the fighting season. They are fed at one time with rice mixed
M'ith the yolks of eggs. At another season — midsummer —
white insects taken from boiled rice which has been exposed to
the sun, are their food. Llaggots from dogs' fiesh which has been
cut into very small pieces and dried in the sun and pounded, are
given to them at other times. Immediately before the fighting
season, which is in spring, (jensing is given. Annually at Loong-
koncr a large mat-shed is erected in which the birds are made
to fight mains. Eound it are hung cages containing the birds,
which fill the air with their warbling.

The fighting birds called "Wa-mee also receive much attention.
Each bird of this description is kept in a high cage in which a
small bridge or table is placed as a perch. They are fed with
rice and the yolks of eggs and a small quantity of sand well
mixed together. Each day during the summer, their cages are
placed in tubs of water so that they may wash themselves,
which they do apparently with much delight. To induce tlie
cock birds to fight it is necessar}'- to place a hen-bird in close
proximity. These birds are remarkably good songsters.

XV].] FIELD SPORTS. 395

lu some parts of tlie empire cock-figliting is also practised,
though to no great extent. The best game cocks are said
to be those which have thick combs and sharp spurs. Some-
times a root called Tsoo-AVoo-Tow is secretly rubbed ou the
comb previous to a main. The smell of this root is so dis-
tasteful to fighting cocks, that they turn away from a bird
whose comb has been so treated. At the close of a contest
the greatest care is bestowed upon the birds, and to make them
eject any blood or mucus, their throats are probed "s,^"itli a quill.
This cruel sport is now seldom or never practised in Canton.

1^0 interest is taken in field sports, such as fox-bunting, shoot-
ing, and angling, by gentlemen in the southern provinces. In
the northern provinces and in Mongolia, there are apparently a
few persons who find pleasure in them. The emperor lias
hunting-grounds at Je-hole and in ^Mongolia, and in the im-
mediate vicinity of Pekin. The hunting-forest in Mongolia is,
I believe, 400 Chinese li, or 133 English miles in breadth, and
800 Chinese K, or 26G English miles in length. That at Je-hole
is inclosed by a wall which is twenty-one Chinese li, or seven
English miles in circumference. Of the extent of the hunting-
grounds in the immediate vicinity of Pekin, I am ignorant. To
judge, liowever, from the vast extent of the walls by which it is
inclosed, it must consist of several miles of land. To one or
other of these hunting-groimds the emperor is supposed to
repair once annually, to enjoy the pleasures of the cliase.

Eox-hunting is not uncommon among the Chinese in the
northern pro^"inces. They use two or thi'ee dogs only, which
are not unlike the English lurcher. Hares are also hunted in the
northern provinces. The same dogs are used as in fox-hunting,
and no more than two or three of them are allowed to take part
in the chase. A hare hunt, therefore, in the north of China,
bear's some resemblance to com'sing in England. In the province
of Chili, anji also in Mongolia, a falcon is used, in addition to
the two or three hounds. The hare when pursued appears to
have a greater dread of the bird than of the dogs. "When the
falcon hovers over it, it at once cowers in the grass, and falls an
easy prey to its winged enemy. In the north the falcon is also
iiol unfrec[uently employed in hawking. Crept pains are

39G CHINA. [chap.

bestowed upon the training of these birds. When a yonng
falcon has been taken from the nest, it is kept without food for
two days. The trainer then allows it to perch upon his arm,
which is protected by a leather sleeve. Some ten feet off stands
another man who allures the bird to him, by holding out a piece
of raw meat. The meat is sometimes attached to a white
feather fan. In order to tame old falcons, which are generally
captured by nets, they cover the head of the bird with clotli
and then bind it to the arm of a figure resembling a man. It is
fed very sparingly during the process of training, which extends
over a month. At the end of this period the cloth or bandage
is removed from its head. Its wings, however, are now bound
by a cord. It is again made to perch during a period of seven
weeks on the arm of the wooden figure. It is then for the first
time allowed to fly in the open air. To prevent its escape a
long string is, of course, bound to its leg. Wooden figures of
pheasants or other birds to which morsels of flesh are attached,
are, with the view of attracting the falcon when soaring in the
air, pulled through the long coarse grass by which the hills and
plains are covered. The bird dorts upon these figures and finds
its reward in the tempting bait. At Mow-yow, a city of the
district of Yoong-kong, falcons for the chase are sold in large
numbers. The market for these birds is, I believe, generally
held at night.

In the midland and northern provinces shooting is a favourite
sport with some gentlemen. In the south a sportsman is a rara
avis. This I attribute, in a great measure, to the influence of
the Buddhist religion, and to the idea which prevails that birds
exercise good geomantic influences over the surrounding country.
In every village there is generally a notice to the effect that
persons passing that way are not to destroy the birds, or injure
the trees upon which they are accustomed to roost. IManymen,
however, of the poorer classes shoot birds for sale. The birds, I
believe, are mostly purchased by foreigners.

The Chinese are not much given to athletic exercises. Of sucli
manly games as wrestling, boxing, cricket, rackets, and foot-
ball they are apparently ignorant. They are very expert, how-
ever, at their own game of shuttlecock, which they play using

xvi.J REGATTAS. 397

their feet instead of battledores. The shuttlecock is sometimes
kept up in this way for several minutes. Athletics are mostly
confined to candidates for military degrees, who by constant
practice acquire great strength of body. This is especially true
of the Mongolians, who are naturally very strong. I remember
being much astonislied at Jo-hole on seeing the ease with whicli
a cavalry officer upv/ards of seventy years of age, pulled the
strongest bov/s, and, armed with a sword and lance, went through
parts of the cavalry exercise.

Eegattas are not unknown to the Chinese. I was present at
one which took place in 18G6, at the town of Toodcow, and on
the first day found no less than forty-two boats contesting in
heats for the prizes. The first prize was a roast pig, a red tablet
with a highly eulogistic inscription, a small marble screen on
which good moral sentences were recorded, two silver wine-cups
of antique shape, and a silk banner. There were seven prizes,
and the distance rowed over was three English miles. The
oarsmen, as a rule, were fine muscular men, and the winners of
the first prize seemed to be capable of contending, in their way,
with the best-manned four-oar on any English river. The crews
of the winning boats were presented with bouquets of flowers
by their friends. A regatta takes j^lace in the Nandioi distiict
of Kwang-tung every year. It is advertised by placards, the
advertisements being visually of a humorous character.

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